/var/lib/tomcat6/webapps/pdnadmin/data/documents/3055

SUMMARY

This Issues Paper firstly analyzes the vicious spiral between climate change impacts, ecosystem degradation

•

and increased risk of climate-related disasters;

secondly, defines the central role of ecosystem management in climate change adaptation and disaster

•

risk reduction and their multifaceted linkages;

and thirdly, assesses the challenges for enhanced ecosystem management for climate change adaptation

•

and disaster risk reduction.

Given the increasing importance of ecosystem management in adapting and responding to climate change

impacts and associated disaster risks, the paper concludes that political commitment at the highest level is

urgently needed if ecosystem management is to have the adequate weight it deserves in the post-2012 climate

change agreement.

It is further recommended that adequate financial, technological and knowledge resources be allocated for

integrating ecosystem management in the climate change and disaster risk reduction portfolios, including within

national policy-setting, capacity building, planning and practices, particularly in developing countries vulnerable

to climate change impacts and increased risks of climate-related disasters.

VUlneRAble coMMUnitieS

At RiSk:

CLIMATE ChANGE, ECoSySTEM DEGRADATIoN AND INCREASING RISk oF CLIMATE-

RELATED DISASTERS

Science has established that global climate change increases the frequency and intensity of climate-related
disasters such as floods, fires, and droughts, and causes ecosystem degradation. This in turn reduces the resilience
of ecosystems and human societies against the impacts of climate change and the increased risk of disasters.
Ecosystem degradation compromises the carbon sequestration ability of natural systems, and may turn these
systems from carbon sinks to sources, thus exacerbating the downward spiral. Unwise use of ecosystems by human
beings aggravates this vicious cycle as illustrated in Figure 1 below.

Vulnerable

Communities

Climate Change

increases the frequency and

intensity of climate related disasters,

and exacerbates ecosystem degradation

Increased Disaster Risk

undermines ecosystem and

community resilience and exacerbates

impacts of climate variability and change

Ecosystem Degradation

triggers more disasters,

reduces resilience and

releases more GHGs to the atmosphere

Figure 1.

Simplified illustration of the complicated interactions

between climate change, ecosystem degradation and increased disaster risk

a) Climate change increases the risks

of climate-related disasters,

which cause

the  loss  of  lives  and  livelihoods,  and  weaken
the  resilience  of  vulnerable  ecosystems  and
societies.  Communities  around  the  world  are
already  vulnerable  to  the  impacts  of  climate
related hazards. Figure 2 shows a sharp increase
in  the  occurrence  of  natural  disasters  such  as
floods,  droughts,  extreme  temperatures,  and
wildfires from 1960 to 1989, and an even more
rapid increase since 1990. While this trend may
not  be  wholly  attributable  to  climate  change,
the  increase  in  the  frequency  and  intensity
of  climate  related  hazards  does  correspond
to  temperature  increase,  and  is  projected  to
continue even if greenhouse gas emissions were
to be stabilized today (IPCC, 2007), thus further
aggravating  the  vulnerability  of  communities,
assets and livelihoods.

b) Climate change exacerbates ecosystem

degradation.

The IPCC Fourth Assessment

Report (AR4) projected, “The resilience of many
ecosystems is likely to be exceeded by 2100 by
an  unprecedented  combination  of  change  in
climate, associated disturbances (e.g., flooding,
drought,  wildfire,  insects,  ocean  acidification),
and  other  global  change  drivers  (e.g.,  land-
use  change,  pollution,  over-exploitation  of
resources)  (high  confidence).”  Tundra,  boreal
forest,

mountains,

Mediterranean-type

ecosystems,  mangroves  and  salt  marshes,
coral reefs and the sea-ice biomes are amongst
these  vulnerable  ecosystems.  Substantial
changes  in  the  structure  and  function  of
terrestrial,  freshwater  and  marine  ecosystems
are  very  likely  to  occur.  In  particular,  20-30%
of species assessed so far are likely to be at an
increasingly  high  risk  of  extinction  as  global
mean temperatures exceed 2 to 3oC above pre-
industrial  levels.  If  the  temperature  increases
by more than 4oC, few ecosystems will be able
to adapt, more than 40% of global ecosystems
are  projected  to  be  transformed,  and  major
extinctions will occur around the globe.

c) Ecosystem degradation triggers more

disasters and reduces nature’s and societies’
resilience against climate change impacts and
disasters.

Ecosystem degradation is a process

which will eventually lead to the collapse of the
ecosystem.  The  degradation  process  reduces
the  capacity  of  the  ecosystem  to  buffer  the
impacts  of  climate  change,  for  example,
more  frequent  heavy  rains,  droughts,  melting
glaciers  and  sea  level  rise.  Biodiversity  loss
from  ecosystem  degradation  could  cause  the
break down of food chains and eventually the
collapse of the ecosystem, leading to biological
disasters such as the invasion of new species.
Hence  ecosystem  degradation  also  increases
the vulnerability of natural and human systems
to  the  impacts  of  disasters  such  as  floods,
landslides  and  storm  surges.  The  worst  case

scenario is the collapse of the ecosystem, leading to the total loss of its
buffering ability and other services to human well-being.

d) Ecosystem degradation reduces carbon sequestration in the

ecosystems

and may turn them from carbon sinks to sources, exacerbating

the vicious spiral. The IPCC projects that “the terrestrial biosphere is likely
to become a net carbon source by 2100, while ocean buffering capacity
begins saturating, thus amplifying climate change, given continued
greenhouse gas emissions at or above current rates and other unmitigated
global changes, such as land use changes (high confidence). “

bReAking the VicioUS SpiRAl:

ThE MULTIPLE bENEFITS

oF ECoSySTEM MANAGEMENT

In a world where climate change is resulting in more unpredictable

weather patterns, sea level rise and more frequent and extreme storms,
the regulating services provided by ecosystems are critical for climate
change adaptation and disaster risk reduction. Examples of these services
include climate and water regulation, protection from natural hazards such
as floods and avalanches, water and air purification, carbon sequestration,
and disease and pest regulation. These services determine the central role
of ecosystem management in climate change adaptation and disaster risk
reduction as shown in Figure 3 on the next page.

a) Ecosystem management increases the resilience of natural systems

and human societies to climate change impacts.

Managing ecosystems

to conserve and improve their health is crucial for sustaining the various
ecosystem services important to human well-being. Healthy ecosystems
also act as buffers, increasing the resilience of natural and human systems
to climate change impacts and disasters.

Ecosystem-based adaptation strategies cut across all sectors. Some

examples of these strategies include using mangroves for coastal defense,
flood  plain  management  for  flood  defense,  and  maintaining  genetic
diversity for adaptation in the agricultural sector. Good practices already
exist  on  the  ground,  such  as  wind-sheltering  and  breaks  to  increase
resilience of rangelands in Sudan, re-forestation of mangroves to protect
shorelines from storm surge and sea-level rise in the Philippines, sea-level
rise  land  acquisition  programmes  in  the  US,  and  drought  adjustment  of

Figure 2. Number of natural disasters in the world, 1940–2008.

Sources: The OFDA/CRED International Disaster Database: www.em-dat.net

and “EM-DAT: The OFDA/CRED International Disaster Database: www.emdat.be

— Université Catholique de Louvain — Brussels — Belgium”

planting dates and crop varieties in Mexico and
Argentina. However, these practices are limited
and  very  much  on  an  ad  hoc  basis,  and  much
more needs to be done. Two major approaches
for  adapting  to  and  managing  climate  risks
are  already  in  place  to  enhance  the  role  of
ecosystem  management,  and  full  advantage
should  be  taken  of  them:  Integrated  Water
Resource  Management  (IWRM)  to  manage
increasing  water  scarcity,  and  Integrated
Coastal  Zone  Management  (ICZM)  to  manage
the threat of sea level rise.

Ecosystem

management

also

maximizes co-benefits of mitigation of climate
change

by reducing emissions and fixing

carbon through good practices such as Land
Use, Land Use Change and Forestry (LULUCF)
activities and Reduced Carbon Emissions

from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD), reducing the loss of
natural  habitat  and  deforestation  as  well  as  increasing  or  maintaining
carbon stocks in ecosystems. Managing ecosystems to enhance biological
carbon sequestration (biosequestration) is a promising tool in the efforts to
mitigate climate change, and may often also support the achievement of
other societal goals. The discussion about possible ways of reducing carbon
emissions in various land uses, such as forestry and agriculture, is gaining
momentum.  Given  the  high  rates  of  global  forest  loss  and  associated
GHG  emissions  (18-25%  of  annual  emissions),  reducing  emissions  from
deforestation and forest degradation would make a major contribution to
meeting emission stabilization targets.

c) Ecosystem management provides physical defense from climate-

related disasters.

Healthy ecosystems protect societies from disasters and

improve their ability to cope with the impacts. Mountain meadows, bushes
and forests protect people in the downstream from landslides and flash
floods from glacier lake outbursts due to the accelerated melting of high
mountain glaciers and snows. Coral reefs provide offshore breakwaters
which reduce the impacts of sea surges and tropical storm waves before

Ecosystem Management

increases the resilience of ecosystems and

communities to climate change impacts, protects

them from disasters, and sequestrates carbon

Disaster Risk Reduction

increases the resilience of ecosystems

to disasters and complements

climate change adaptation efforts

Climate Change Adaptation

increases the resilience of

ecosystems to climate change impacts

and supports disaster risk reduction

Figure 3.

Central role of ecosystems in disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation

Ecosystem management is defined in this

paper as “an integrated process to conserve

and improve ecosystem health that sustains

ecosystem services for human well-being.”

It is a summary of many definitions covering

two streams of thinking: (1) maintaining

or improving ecosystem health; and

(2) ensuring the delivery of ecosystem

services to human well-being.

Climate change adaptation is defined

by the IPCC as “adjustment in natural or

human systems in response to actual or

expected climatic stimuli or their effects,

which moderates harm or exploits beneficial

opportunities.”

Disaster risk reduction is defined by UNISDR

as “The concept and practice of reducing

disaster risks through systematic efforts

to analyse and manage the causal factors

of disasters, including through reduced

exposure to hazards, lessened vulnerability

of people and property, wise management

of land and the environment, and improved

preparedness for adverse events.”

they reach the shoreline. Mangrove forests act as
revetments or dikes: depending on their health
and extent, mangrove forests can mitigate 70-
90% of the energy from wind-generated waves
(UNEP-WCMC 2006).

d) Climate change adaptation and

disaster risk reduction increase the resilience
of ecosystems.

There is a need for proactive

adaptation and disaster management measures
to  reduce  the  negative  impacts  of  climate
change  and  disasters  on  ecosystems.  Well
designed adaptation measures can increase the
resilience  of  ecosystems,  and  also  reduce  the
risk  of  climate-related  disasters.  Adaptation
is  a  process  starting  from  identifying  and
projecting  climate  change  impacts  to  fully
responding  to  these  impacts  by  reshaping  the
development pathways and ways of ecosystem
management. It helps disaster risk reduction in
terms of being prepared for and protected from
future  climate-related  disasters.  On  the  other
hand, disaster risk reduction contributes to the
overall adaptation process, and if done well, can
enhance the adaptation process by establishing
the foundation for addressing long-term climate
change impacts. Climate change adaptation and
disaster  risk  reduction  are  both  dependent  on
the regulating services provided by ecosystems,
and contribute to building their resilience.

enhAncing ecoSYSteM

MAnAgeMent:

FRoM SCIENCE To

PoLICy To ACTIoN

The facts shown above make clear the

central  role  of  ecosystem  management  in
climate  change  adaptation  and  disaster  risk
reduction, both of which are significant priorities
in the international environmental and political
agenda  such  as  those  of  the  UNFCCC  and
Hyogo  Framework  for  Action.  However,  while
the science is clear, corresponding policy needs
to  be  more  explicit  and  action  on  the  ground
needs to be enhanced.

The science is clear and calls for action,

yet there is no explicit recognition of the role
of  ecosystems  or  actionable  policies  set  in
the UNFCCC or its Bali Action Plan agreed at
COP13. While the Hyogo Framework for Action
recognizes  ecosystem  management  as  an
essential  element  of  reducing  underlying  risk
factors, efforts at environmental management
for  disaster  risk  reduction  have  been  largely
on  an  ad  hoc  basis.  Amongst  the  multilateral
environmental agreements, only the Convention
on  Biological  Diversity  (CBD)  through  its  Ad
Hoc  Technical  Expert  Group  on  biodiversity
and climate change, has started addressing the

linkages between ecosystem management, climate change adaptation and
disaster risk reduction.

National policies and local actions taking an integrated approach

to  address  the  downward  spiral  of  climate  change  impacts,  ecosystem
degradation  and  increased  climate-related  disasters  are  largely  lacking.
The current National Adaptation Programmes of Action (NAPAs) under the
UNFCCC  are  limited  to  least  developed  countries  and  merely  include  a
vague role of ecosystem management. It is of paramount importance to
prioritize the role of ecosystems across all countries. Climate change can
trigger a broad shift towards a global civilization that is sustainable, but
only when we seize the opportunity and start acting now. A few vulnerable
countries  are  taking  action  despite  the  slow  political  processes  in  the
international negotiations.

keY MeSSAge to cop15:

URGENT NEED FoR hIGhEST

LEvEL PoLITICAL CoMMITMENT

It is obvious that many countries have been quick to show commitment

to  climate  change  adaptation  and  disaster  risk  reduction.  However,  the
role  of  ecosystem  management,  though  central  to  both  climate  change
adaptation and disaster risk reduction, has yet to be well recognized at the
political level. In recent years, several Parties to the UNFCCC have started
to recognise the central role of ecosystem management in climate change
adaptation  and  disaster  risk  reduction,  and  called  for  ecosystem-based
adaptation in the context of the Long-term Cooperative Actions (LCA) at
the 14th Conference of the Parties in December 2008. More work however
needs to be done before this recognition becomes the consensus of all the
Parties to the UNFCCC. COP 15 in December 2009, from which the world
is eagerly expecting a post-2012 climate change agreement, will provide
a crucial opportunity for increasing the profile of ecosystem management
and  highlighting  its  important  role  in  climate  change  adaptation  and
disaster risk reduction.

Given the increasing importance of ecosystem management in

adapting  and  responding  to  climate  change  impacts  and  associated
disaster risks, political commitment at the highest level is urgently needed
if ecosystem management is to have the adequate weight it deserves in
the post-2012 climate change agreement. Political support is also needed
for  the  systematic  integration  of  ecosystem  management  into  climate
change  adaptation  and  disaster  risk  reduction  policy  frameworks  and
practices.  It  is  further  strongly  recommended  that  adequate  financial,
technological  and  knowledge  resources  be  allocated  correspondingly  for
integrating  ecosystem  management  in  the  climate  change  and  disaster
risk reduction portfolios, including in national policy-setting and awareness
raising, capacity building, planning and practices, particularly in developing
countries  vulnerable  to  climate  change  impacts  and  increased  risks  of
climate-related disasters.

The UNFCCC Secretariat at its Vienna conference (2007) on

‘‘Investment  and  financial  flows  to  address  climate  change’’  estimated
that by 2030 developing countries will require additional financial support
between 28-67 billion USD a year to enable adaptation to climate change.
Globally,  overall  additional  investment  and  financial  flows  needed  for
adaptation  in  2030  amount  to  several  tens  of  billion  USD.  There  are
allocations  in  this  estimation  for  various  sectors,  yet  adequate  financial
resources should also be explicitly allocated for ecosystem management in
the climate change portfolio. The United Nations Collaborative Programme
on  Reducing  Emissions  from  Deforestation  and  Forest  Degradation  in
Developing Countries (UN REDD), supported by the Government of Norway,
has  set  a  very  good  example  of  the  use  of  ecosystem  management  for

biosequestration and reducing carbon emissions.
It is recommended the same approach be applied
to use ecosystem management for climate
change adaptation and disaster risk reduction.

Meanwhile, knowledge and technology

support to vulnerable countries should also
be adequate and timely. For instance, there is
a need to start developing guidance on mixed
engineered/ecosystem-based adaptation and
disaster risk management solutions.

An unprecedented level of cooperation is

urgently required from the policy and scientific
communities  to  act  on  the  combined  threats
of  climate  change,  disasters  and  continuous
ecosystem  degradation.  This  will  help  foster
closer  links  between  ecosystem  management,
climate  change  adaptation  and  disaster  risk
reduction  communities,  as  well  as  between
science  and  policy  such  as  the  links  between
the IPCC and UNFCCC and IPCC, CBD and the
IPBES  process, and catalyze North-South and
South-South cooperation.

RefeRenceS

AND FURThER READING

1. CBD, technical series papers 10 and 25

2. CCSP, 2008: Preliminary review of adaptation options for climate-sensitive

ecosystems and resources. A Report by the U.S. Climate Change Science
Program and the Subcommittee on Global Change Research. [Julius, S.H., J.M.
West (eds.), J.S. Baron, L.A. Joyce, P. Kareiva, B.D. Keller, M.A. Palmer, C.H.
Peterson, and J.M. Scott (Authors)]. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington, DC, USA, 873 pp.

3. Martin Parry, Osvaldo Canziani, Jean Palutikof etc 2007, Chapter 4 and

Technical Summary of Working Group II report, IPCC Fourth Assessment
Report, Climate Change 2007.

4. Millar, C. I., Stephenson, N. L., and Stephens, S. L. (2007). Climate Change and

Forest Change and Forests of the Future: Managing in the Face of Uncertainty.
Ecological Applications 17, 2145-2151.

5. Milly, P. C. D., Betancourt, J. L., Falkenmark, M., Hirsch, R. H., Kindzewicz,

Z., Lettenmaier, D. P., and Stouffer, R. J. (2008). Stationarity is dead: Whither
Water Management- Rethinking approaches to planning and design in a
changing climate. Science 319, 573-574.

6. Prato, T. (2008). Conceptual framework for assessment and management of

ecosystem impacts of climate change. Ecological Complexity 5, 329-338.

7. R.K. Pachauri etc. 2007, The Synthesis Report of IPCC Fourth Assessment

Report, Climate Change 2007.

UNDP (2004). Reducing Disaster Risk: a challenge for development.
A global report. Bureau for Crisis Prevention and Recovery, NY, USA,
Pp 146.

9. UNEP, Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005

10. UNFCCC, the Convention 1992, the Bali Action Plan 2007

11. UNISDR, Hyogo Framework for Action, 2005

12. UNU (2006). Healthy ecosystems buffer against natural disaster. Issue 41,

Available from: http://update.unu.edu/issue41_20.htm.

13. Simms, Andrew and Hannah Reid, 2005; Africa – Up in smoke?

The second report from the Working Group on Climate Change
and Development

14. Ecosystems, Livelihoods and Disasters (2006), UNISDR WG on Environment

& Disasters publication “Environment and Vulnerability

15. ProAct Network “The Role of Environmental Management and Eco-engineering

in Disaster Risk Reduction and Climate Change Adaptation” (2008).