untitled

ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

table of contents

acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi

preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii

summary for policymakers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii

introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

1.1

Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

1.2

Roadmap to the Guidebook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

assess vulnerability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

2.1

Global Climate Change and Threats to the World’s Coasts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

2.2

Vulnerability Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

2.3

Coastal Vulnerability Hot Spots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

select course of action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

3.1

Identify Priorities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

3.2

Define Adaptation Goals and Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

3.3

Adaptation Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

3.4

Selecting Measures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

mainstream coastal adaptation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

4.1

What is Mainstreaming? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

4.2

National and Regional Entry Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

4.3

Sectoral Investments and Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

4.4

Coastal Places . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

4.5

Overcoming Barriers and Obstacles to Successful Mainstreaming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

implement adaptation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

5.1

Ensure Adequate Administrative and Institutional Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

5.2

Strengthen Legal Frameworks and Enforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

5.3

Strengthen Personnel Capabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

5.4

Highlight Costs of Doing Nothing and Costs of Adaptation Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

5.5

Develop Sustainable Financing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

5.6

Plan for Externalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

5.7

Maintain Scientific Basis for Policy and Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

5.8

Maintain an Inclusive and Par ticipatory Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

5.9

Select Technically Appropriate and Effective Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

evaluate for adaptive management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

6.1

Evaluation of Adaptations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

6.2

Adapting Evaluation Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

Annex A – Adaptation Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

contribution to development goals and addressing climate change impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

functioning and healthy coastal ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

1. Coastal Wetland Protection and Restoration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
2. Marine Conservation Agreements .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 79
3. Marine Protected Areas .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .   . 83
4. Payment for Environmental Services.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .   . 87

built environment is less exposed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

1. Beach and Dune Nourishment  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
2. Building Standards .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .   .   . 95
3. Coastal Development Setbacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
4. Living Shorelines .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .   .   .   102
5. Structural Shoreline Stabilization  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

table of contents (continued)

diversified livelihoods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

1. Fisheries Sector Good Practices .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  110
2. Mariculture Best Management Practices .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  115
3. Tourism Best Management Practices .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  118

human health and safety HQKDQFHG. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .122

1. Community-based Disaster Risk Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
2. Flood Hazard Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

overarching planning and governance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

1. Coastal Watershed Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
2. Integrated Coastal Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
3. Special Area Management Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

list of figures

Figure 1.1

A coastal adaptation roadmap applies a climate lens to the ICM policy cycle often used by coastal practitioners

Figure 2.1

Vulnerability to sea level rise and storm surge

Figure 2.2

Vulnerability framework

Figure 3.1

Ordering coastal adaptation outcomes

Figure 3.2

Adaptation options related to the goals of the U.S. National Estuary Program.

Figure 4.1

How entry points reinforce each other and contribute to a more integrated strategy

Figure 4.2

Mainstreaming adaptation in coastal tourism

Figure 4.3

Adaptation can be mainstreamed within the national development strategy, sector strategies, or donor grants

Figure 6.1

Adaptive management process

list of tables

Table 2.1

A Summary of climate change observations and trends in the coastal zone

Table 2.2

Threats to the coastal environment

Table 2.3

Examples of exposed coastal assets and factors of sensitivity

Table 3.1

Examples of adaptation goals for coastal climate change

Table 3.2

Adaptation measures, goals, and climate change impacts

Table 4.1

An assessment of the national adaptation programme of action

Table 6.1

What motivates evaluation and what are the benefits

Table 6.2

Adaptation measures and adaptive management responses

acronyms

BMP

Best Management Practice

CRC

Coastal Resources Center

ICM

Integrated Coastal Management

IPCC

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

IRG

International Resources Group

LDC

Less Developed Countries

NAPA

National Adaptation Programme of Action

PES

Payments for Environmental Services

SCCRF

Special Climate Change Fund

SIDS

Small Island Developing States

UNFCCC

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

URI

University of Rhode Island

USAID

United States Agency for International Development

V&A Vulnerability

and

Adaptation

ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

acknowledgements

This Guidebook was prepared under the leadership of the Global Climate Change Team and Water and Coastal Team
of the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) Bureau for Economic Growth, Agriculture,
and Trade, in partnership with the Coastal Resources Center at the University of Rhode Island (URI-CRC), and the
International Resources Group (IRG). Many others provided advice, content and ideas. In particular, we wish to
thank our Advisory Committee members whose initial input and periodic comments and contributions helped shape
the eﬀort.

We also greatly appreciate the invaluable feedback from coastal professionals and practitioners around the world. In
particular, we want to acknowledge the interest in and support of the Guidebook by participants of the following: the
4th Global Conference on Oceans, Coasts, and Islands convened in Hanoi, Vietnam in April 2008; the EcoCostas
Network meeting in Ecuador in May 2008; the 2008 Summer Institute in Advanced Coastal Management at URI;
and the Workshop on Mainstreaming Climate Change Development Strategies, Programs and Projects held in Panama
in October 2008.

Special thanks are extended to staﬀ at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) for their input,
expertise, and support to build local capacity in coastal adaptation.

The Project Team—comprised of Richard Volk and John Furlow (USAID); Pamela Rubinoﬀ, James Tobey, Donald
Robadue, Glenn Ricci, Lesley Squillante (URI-CRC); Glen Anderson, Yoon Kim and Kyung Kim (IRG)—would also
like to recognize by name the Advisory Committee members and the many practitioners who contributed adaptation
measures and graphics, and who provided technical review and practical advice that has enhanced this Guidebook:

Ellik Adler, United Nations Environment Programme

Kem Lowry, University of Hawaii

Amanda Babson, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

Audra Luscher, U.S. NOAA Coastal Services Center

Carl Bruch, Environmental Law Institute

Elizabeth Matthews, Palau Conservation Society

Virginia Burkett, U.S. Geological Survey

Joseph Murphy, U.S. Embassy Fiji

Gillian Cambers, University of Puerto

Sandra Nichols, Environmental Law Institute

Rico Sea Grant College Program

Gwen Shaughnessy, Maryland Coastal Program

Hannah Campbell, Conservation International,

formerly with U.S. NOAA Climate Program Oﬃce

Sena De Silva, Network of Aquaculture Centres of Asia

Jeﬀ DeBlieu, The Nature Conservancy

Adam Stein, NOAA Coastal Services Center

Bill Dennison, University of Maryland

Robert Stickney, Texas A&M University

Center for Environmental Science

Jessica Troell, Environmental Law Institute

Lesley Ewing, California Coastal Commission

Jay Udelhoven, The Nature Conservancy

Serena Fortuna, United Nations Environmental Programme

Lisa Vaughan, U.S. NOAA Climate Program Oﬃce

Fathimath Ghina, UNESCO

Laverne Walker, Coastal Zone Management Unit, St. Lucia

Karen Jakubowski, Clean Air Cool Planet

Anne Walton, U.S. NOAA National

Zoë Johnson, Maryland Department of Natural Resources

Marine Sanctuary Program

Jeftic Ljubomir, United Nations Environmental Programme

Alan White, The Nature Conservancy

ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

preface

The challenges we all must face in adapting to climate variability and change present themselves with increasing
urgency. Nowhere will these challenges be greater than in the developing world where often weak institutions and
governance systems struggle to deal with mounting pressures from population growth, inadequate infrastructure, and
diminishing or already depleted natural resources.

In this context, the unique ecosystem processes and extraordinary development pressures within the coastal zone
require that development planners – and the donors who assist with development – give special urgency to the task of
helping to build resiliency against the impacts of climate change. The changes are many and already underway. They
include rising sea level, increasingly intense cyclones, altered precipitation and runoﬀ, elevated sea surface temperature,
and ocean acidiﬁcation.

The decades ahead will witness increased numbers of people, infrastructure, and ecosystems at risk in the coastal
zone. National and local leaders across all sectors must begin now to engage stakeholders in assessing vulnerability
and designing adaptation strategies that are technically, ﬁnancially, and politically achievable. Meanwhile, donors too
must work to protect their investments by incorporating analyses of climate variability and change into the design and
implementation of virtually every kind of development assistance program to be implemented within the coastal zone.

This Guidebook is both a tool in itself and a link to other resources to help with those eﬀorts. The processes, tools,
and resources that it contains are based on the inputs of numerous coastal planners, climate change experts, and other
development professionals. It was prepared under the guidance of the Water Team and Global Climate Change Team
of the U.S. Agency for International Development.

The eﬀective application of these tools, development of new techniques and sharing of lessons will be critical to
meet all of the myriad challenges of a fast evolving landscape/seascape of coastal climate change adaptation around
the world. We consider this a ﬁrst edition and welcome and encourage your comments, suggestions, and inputs for
inclusion in subsequent editions.

Please address correspondence about the Guidebook to:

The U.S. Agency for International Development
Global Climate Change Team
Washington, DC, USA 20523-3800
climatechange@usaid.gov

ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

iii

summary for policymakers

Adapting to Coastal Climate Change: A Guidebook for Development Planners (the Guidebook) provides a detailed
treatment of climate concerns in coastal areas. The Guidebook proposes an approach for assessing vulnerability to
climate change and climate variability, developing and implementing adaptation options, and integrating options
into programs, development plans, and projects at the national and local levels. This is known as a vulnerability and
adaptation or V&A approach. The summary presented here is designed for policymakers and others who are interested
in the Guidebook’s key messages and may review the full version later or use the Guidebook as a reference document.
The summary is organized by the steps in the V&A approach that is recommended in this Guidebook. References for
the information provided in this summary are included in the main body of the Guidebook.

There is an unequivocal scientiﬁc consensus that the changes brought by climate change are already occurring and
will intensify in the future, likely resulting in signiﬁcant alteration of coastal ecosystems, coastal hazards, and lifestyle
changes for ﬁshers, coastal resource users, waterfront property owners and coastal communities. These have far-
reaching impacts on a range of challenges for coastal resource managers. Dramatically stepped up eﬀorts are needed
to guide proactive adaptation actions that beneﬁt human and natural ecosystems for present and future generations.

Step 1
Assess

vulnerability

Step 2

Select course

of action

Step 3

Mainstream

coastal

adaptation

Step 4

Implement

Adaptation

Step 5

Evaluate for

adaptive

management

STEP 1. ASSESS VULNERABILITY

The assessment of vulnerability focuses on gaining an understanding of how climate variability and change
will impact coastal communities, the goods and services provided by natural resources, and human-built
infrastructure.

Vulnerability assessment for climate change in speciﬁc coastal regions considers three factors: 1) the nature
and magnitude of climate variability and change; 2) the human, capital, and natural assets that will be
exposed to and impacted by climate change; and 3) the current capacity of coastal communities and
ecosystems to adapt to and cope with climate impacts.

Climate is changing in response to increased greenhouse gas emissions, and projections for the coming decades
paint a somber picture.

There is scientiﬁc consensus that increases in greenhouse gases in the atmosphere drive warming
temperatures of air and sea, and that the world’s oceans acidify as they absorb the carbon dioxide. Warming
of air and sea causes shifts in precipitation patterns and hydrological cycles, sea level rise, and more
frequent and severe extreme weather events (e.g., storms and storm surge). These eﬀects are already being
witnessed in the world’s coastal regions and are projected to intensify in years to come.

Climate change will impact the health, function and productivity of coastal ecosystems, thus impacting the
health and welfare of coastal communities and the billions of people that depend on these natural resources.

Climate changes will have signiﬁcant and immediate consequences for the world’s coasts, the goods and
services provided by coastal ecosystems, and coastal inhabitants. This includes accelerated coastal erosion
and loss of land and property, ﬂooding, saltwater intrusion, shifts in the distribution and abundance of
valuable marine habitats, species and biodiversity, and the accelerated spread of exotic and invasive species.

It may mean more frequent coral bleaching and increased mortality, loss of coastal wetland ecosystems and
ﬁshing grounds, and growth in the spread of marine dead zones.

The ocean is also becoming more acidic (decreased seawater pH) as it absorbs atmospheric carbon
dioxide (CO

). Ocean acidiﬁcation has potential widespread eﬀects on marine ecosystems. It may inhibit

calciﬁcation, which will threaten the survival of coral-reef ecosystems. It will inhibit the growth of
calcareous algae at the base of the food web and of shell-forming marine organisms (such as scallops),
and it will stunt the growth of calciﬁed skeletons in many other marine organisms, including commercial
ﬁsh species. These species changes then aﬀect local ﬁsheries livelihoods and food supplies for coastal
communities.

The ability of ecosystems and habitats to adapt to climate impacts can be increased by reducing other
stressors such as overﬁshing and land-based pollution. Reducing these current stresses will increase the
resilience or ability of the environment to adapt to future impacts, thus reducing threats to human welfare.

Coastal areas most vulnerable to climate change are low-lying islands, coastal areas and deltas; countries
subjected to hurricanes and typhoons; and less developed countries

Relative to other coastal areas, low-lying islands, including many Small Island Developing States (SIDS),
are more vulnerable to the impacts of climate change because they have relatively scarce natural resources
(e.g., water resources, construction materials and physical space) and they have limited and high cost
transportation options. Low-lying SIDS have little scope for adaptation and are particularly vulnerable to
sea level rise and storm surge.

Less developed countries are vulnerable to climate change because of rapid population growth, much of
it concentrated in coastal areas; high dependency on climate-sensitive industries such as ﬁsheries, coastal
agriculture and tourism; a degraded natural resource base; weak administration and governance systems;
and poor transportation and communication infrastructure.

Low lying coastal areas and deltas are highly vulnerable to sea level rise, extreme weather events and
storm surge. Globally, at least 150 million people live within 1 meter of high tide level, and 250 million
live within 5 meters of high tide. At greatest risk are the densely populated Asian mega-deltas of rivers
including the Yangtze (China), Ganges-Brahmaputra (Bangladesh), Mekong (Cambodia), and Irrawaddy
(Myanmar). Other major mega-deltas at risk are the Nile (Egypt), Niger (Africa), and Mississippi (USA).

Climate change combines with and amplifies non-climate stressors on coastal ecosystems.

Coastal ecosystems are already seriously stressed in
many areas of the world. Reasons include intense coastal
development and overpopulation, poverty, internal conﬂict,
fragmentation and loss of habitat, over-ﬁshing, pollution,
and spread of invasive species. These non-climate stressors
will impair the resilience of ecosystems, i.e., the ability of
the ecosystem to maintain its integrity and to continue to
provide critical goods and services to coastal communities.

Mangroves, coral reefs, estuaries, seagrass beds, dune
communities and other systems on or near shorelines serve
critical ecological functions that are important to human
society. Such functions include ﬁsheries, storm protection,
ﬂood mitigation, erosion control, water storage, groundwater
recharge, pollution abatement, and retention and cycling of
nutrients and sediments. Healthy habitats function as self-

Uncontrolled development along the coast results
in conflicts over access, increased demands on
infrastructure, degraded water quality and increased
risks to natural hazards. Sinaloa, Mexico

ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

repairing “natural infrastructure,” in contrast to human-built infrastructure, thus minimizing maintenance
costs. When these critical resources are compromised, coastal ecosystems are weakened—and weakened,
unhealthy coastal ecosystems are less resilient to climate change and variability.

Adaptive capacity refers to the ability of society to plan for and respond to change in a way that makes it
better equipped to manage its exposure and sensitivity to climate change.

Adaptive capacity depends on economic well-being, ecological well-being, the extent of dependency on
natural resources, infrastructure (human-built or natural), eﬀectiveness of institutions and governance
systems, insurance, secure land tenure and mediation measures, and information and communication
systems. A community with the capacity to adapt is likely to be more resistant to impacts or able to recover
from stressful events and conditions.

Step 1
Assess

vulnerability

Step 2

Select course

of action

Step 3

Mainstream

coastal

adaptation

Step 4

Implement

Adaptation

Step 5

Evaluate for

adaptive

management

STEP 2: SELECT COURSE OF ACTION

Planned adaptation is strategic and aims to address the full range of coastal climate change hazards in ways
that meet social objectives.

In general, there are two types of adaptation—‘reactive’ and ‘planned’. Reactive adaptations are the changes
in policy and behavior that people and organizations adopt after they have observed changes in climate
and coastal risks. This Guidebook focuses on planned adaptation—that which is strategic, intentional,
proactive, and occurs at the societal level.

The selection of a course of action to address climate vulnerability involves the identification of adaptation
goals, and assessment of individual adaptation measures or measures bundled into a strategy.

Coastal areas may be subject to a variety of climate impacts. Therefore, it is useful to prioritize your climate
vulnerabilities. This will help in selecting your adaptation options and course of action. It is important to
coordinate this with the decision-making procedures that govern the program, plan, or project for which
climate is a concern. We urge policymakers to engage major stakeholders in setting adaptation goals,
selecting criteria for and assessing adaptation options, and providing input into the ﬁnal selection process.
Major categories of management goals common to adaptation programs in coastal areas include:

1) Maintain functioning and healthy coastal ecosystems

2) Reduce exposure and vulnerability of the built environment

3) Strengthen governance frameworks for coastal adaptation

4) Maintain livelihood opportunities and diversify options

5) Reduce risks to human health and safety

A gallery of coastal adaptation measures has been
developed for the Guidebook. Many of these will be
familiar to coastal management professionals—the
climate lens is new, but in most cases the tools are
not.

The Guidebook includes practitioner briefs on 17
coastal adaptation measures and strategies. Each
brief describes the measure’s relevance, purpose and
application to climate change, information and data
requirements, design considerations, suggestions
for improving likelihood of success, and list of
resources. The 17 briefs were chosen by coastal
practitioners from an initial list of 50 adaptation
measures.

Traditionally, practitioners would view many of
these adaptation measures in terms of their potential
beneﬁts in promoting coastal management goals.
Applying a climate lens means that adaptation
measures are viewed in terms of how they
reduce impacts and/or improve the resilience of
communities and ecosystems in the face of climate
change and variability while promoting coastal
management goals. In other words, it means
planning with a longer time scale and a wider range
of possible variability in mind.

Criteria for evaluating adaptation measures consider technical effectiveness, costs, expected benefits, and
implementation characteristics.

Countries or coastal areas may share the same climate change issues. Yet, each has diﬀerent circumstances
(climate, natural resources, infrastructure, technological state, economy, governance, etc.) so the responses
to those climate change issues may vary. Coastal adaptations must be “tailored” to the local context through
an inclusive process that matches development goals with the climate change issues and the technical
capabilities and the capacity of the institutions and community stakeholders of the place. Following are key
criteria for deciding the best adaptation option given the local context:

Technical eﬀectiveness: will the adaptation option be eﬀective in solving problems arising from climate
change while also meeting current development or management goals?

Costs: what is the cost to implement the adaptation measure?

Beneﬁts: what types (and magnitudes) of beneﬁts will be generated by the adaptation measure and who
will beneﬁt?

Implementation considerations: how easy is it to design and implement the option in terms of the
level of skill required, information needed, and scale of implementation?

It is useful to distinguish between climate beneﬁts and non-climate beneﬁts. Climate beneﬁts include such
things as avoiding damages and their associated costs and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Non-climate
beneﬁts are those that result under current climate conditions. An example is enforcing prohibitions on
mining coral reefs, an activity that exacerbates coastal erosion and reduces coastal protection. Adaptations
that yield non-climate beneﬁts greater than the costs of implementation are referred to as “no regrets”

Adaptation measures are summarized as
practitioner briefs in Annex A.

ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

xii

options. This term implies society will have no regrets in implementing these measures—even if climate
change is less signiﬁcant than projected.

In general, except in intensely developed areas, adaptation options that favor ecosystem and living shoreline
approaches are recommended over hard structures to stabilize the shoreline.

Living shoreline approaches address erosion and ﬂooding by providing for long-term protection, restoration
or enhancement of vegetated shoreline habitats. Such ”no regrets” approaches—i.e., approaches that
are beneﬁcial even in the absence of climate change—should be a priority. The use of natural living
infrastructure provides multiple beneﬁts while minimizing repair costs. Functional coastal ecosystems are
more resilient to climate change and variability. They also provide goods and services that are important to
human society in the face of climate change (ﬁsheries, livelihoods, food security, storm protection, ﬂood
mitigation, shoreline natural defenses, erosion control, water storage, groundwater recharge, retention
of nutrients and sediments, and ﬁltering of pollutants). Maintaining ecosystem biodiversity is critical to
ensuring healthy ecosystems and thus natural-resource dependent livelihoods, such as wild ﬁsheries.

Adaptation responses will often include “bundles” of adaptation measures and require additional considerations
in evaluating multiple measures.

In evaluating and selecting the best combination of adaptation measures, policymakers and practitioners
might consider the following:

Complements vs. substitutes: Ideally, bundles should include adaptation measures that are
complementary to each other. This capitalizes on synergies and ensures that each measure adds beneﬁts.
If measures are substitutes for each other, select and include in the bundle the measure that is least
costly and/or provides the greatest net beneﬁts.

Budget constraints: Often, there are limited ﬁnancial resources available to cover the costs of
implementation. In these situations, no-cost and low-cost measures may be more attractive than
expensive measures such as human-built infrastructure. Adaptation is a continuous process, so we
recommend a phased approach when priority measures are not aﬀordable.

Step 1
Assess

vulnerability

Step 2

Select course

of action

Step 3

Mainstream

coastal

adaptation

Step 4

Implement

Adaptation

Step 5

Evaluate for

adaptive

management

STEP 3: MAINSTREAM COASTAL ADAPTATION

Climate change adaptation on the coast must be understood as a fundamental challenge for managing coastal
resource uses and must be ‘mainstreamed’ into coastal policy at all levels.

Mainstreaming means that climate concerns and adaptation responses are integrated into relevant
development policies, plans, programs, and projects at the national, sub-national, and local scales. National
climate change adaptation strategies are more eﬀective when guidance on adaptation is mainstreamed into
development and sectoral plans and strategies and is “owned” by those authorities responsible for preparing
and implementing them.

There are many entry points for mainstreaming coastal adaptation. This Guidebook highlights three of
these: 1) national or regional level public policy, 2) sectoral investments and projects, and 3) sub-national,
place-based initiatives. Each entry point oﬀers challenges, creates new roles for citizens, the private sector

xiii

and government, and can create new opportunities.
Government must play a pivotal role in creating enabling
policy, ﬁnancial and legal frameworks, capturing and
sharing experience, and raising public awareness.

Guidelines and policies for mainstreaming climate concerns
and adaptation responses into capital investment plans and
project cycles are recommended in the face of climate
change.

Development banks, such as the African Development
Bank and the World Bank, are increasingly concerned
that a substantial share of investments are at risk from
direct impacts from climate change, thereby increasing
vulnerabilities or reducing the intended development
beneﬁts. Estimates of Development Banks’ portfolio at
risk range from 25-40%. For example, infrastructure that cannot be adapted to withstand the impacts of
climate change may expose more people and assets to risk. Mainstreaming climate concerns into capital
investment plans and project cycle management entails integrating climate issues and adaptation priorities
into country strategies. Greater consideration must also be given to vulnerability and adaptation in project
designs, screening, selection and evaluation.

Engaging a broad group of stakeholdersthroughout
the process is key to successful adaptation.

A two-track approach combining local level, community-based adaptation with national level enabling policy,
finance and legal frameworks is an effective approach to adaptation implementation.

Successful mainstreaming requires reinforcing linkages between local and national level adaptation entry
points. Government, together with non-government partners, must play a pivotal role in fostering the
connections across national, sectoral, and place entry points.

There may be resistance to mainstreaming climate adaptation. Coastal managers can draw upon their repertoire
of experience to formulate strategies to overcome such barriers.

There is often inherent resistance to the introduction of any new policy idea. Because climate change
impacts are cumulative and occur over the long-term, there may be little sense of urgency to act.
Individuals and organizations may resist because of the uncertainties that surround climate change
and because they have diﬀerent tolerance levels for the risks associated with taking action under such
uncertainties. The Guidebook lists good practices for successful and sustained coastal adaptation that
have proven eﬀective in coastal management worldwide and that can help in overcoming resistance to
mainstreaming coastal adaptation.

Step 1
Assess

vulnerability

Step 2

Select course

of action

Step 3

Mainstream

coastal

adaptation

Step 4

Implement

Adaptation

Step 5

Evaluate for

adaptive

management

STEP 4: IMPLEMENT ADAPTATION

Implementation of adaptation measures brings new challenges and potential conflicts. Practitioners and coastal
professionals need to be aware of these and address them proactively.

ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

Implementation challenges include: inadequate administrative, institutional, and staﬀ capabilities; lack of
sustainable ﬁnancing or cost recovery; weak legal frameworks and enforcement; information gaps on the
costs of acting vs. not acting (doing nothing); maintaining scientiﬁc data and monitoring to sustain the
measures; unengaged political leadership and stakeholders; and poor technical eﬀectiveness of the measures.
The Guidebook identiﬁes speciﬁc responses to each implementation challenge. Many of these challenges
can be anticipated and addressed prior to implementation—i.e., during the assessment, design, and
mainstreaming steps of coastal adaptation.

Coastal practitioners and professionals must be alert to implementation challenges and address them
proactively as they become evident. Recommended actions include periodic program reviews at the national
or local levels to ensure agencies and communities are aware of successes and failures. Another action is to
educate and encourage the public and property owners to be active in the stakeholder process. Also, take
action to keep coastal adaptation on the public agenda, and conduct monitoring and scientiﬁc studies to
reduce uncertainty about the eﬀectiveness of the measures being implemented.

Step 1
Assess

vulnerability

Step 2

Select course

of action

Step 3

Mainstream

coastal

adaptation

Step 4

Implement

Adaptation

Step 5

Evaluate for

adaptive

management

STEP 5: EVALUATE FOR ADAPTIVE MANAGEMENT

Coastal adaptation is an on-going and iterative process that will benefit from periodic evaluation of performance
coupled with an adaptive management process to fine-tune implementation.

Once coastal adaptation measures are implemented, there will likely be considerable interest in how they
perform. Policymakers will be keen to demonstrate that the measures are beneﬁcial to the citizenry. They
will also want to assuage stakeholders who have borne some of the costs of the measures. Evaluation is
the process of reviewing and analyzing all relevant data and information required to determine if the set
of adaptation options are meeting expectations. If measures do not perform according to expectations,
they must be adjusted. The process of reﬂecting on and adjusting the course of action based on evaluation
results, new information, and changing conditions is referred to as adaptive management.

ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

1.1 BACKGROUND

Coasts and the world’s oceans are crucial to life on Earth,
they support livelihoods, and are vital to the global
economy in many ways. Coastal ecosystems exist at the
interface between terrestrial and marine environments.
They include some of the most diverse and dynamic
environments on earth. This narrow band of the earth’s
surface attracts human populations because it is a focal
point for economic growth—accounting for a majority
share of humanity’s infrastructure, transportation and
trade, energy processing, tourism, and recreation.
Coastal ecosystems provide a myriad of ecological
goods and services. They provide habitat and nurseries
for the majority of commercially important marine ﬁsh
and shellﬁsh species, and provide food security and
livelihoods for over 1 billion people. They oﬀer storm
surge protection, erosion control, and ﬂood mitigation.
They also help retain nutrients and sediments and ﬁlter
pollutants. Thus, the socioeconomic and ecological
importance of the coastal zone is virtually unparalleled.

Considering that the majority of humans

reside along coasts, coastal regions have

become uniquely impor tant to the well-

being of society and the need for proactive

action to adapt to climate changes is ever

more pressing.

Global climate change already impacts and will
continue to impact coastal communities, ecosystems,
and many facets of people’s lives in the coastal zone
where approximately 2.7 billion people—over 40%
of the world's population—live. Even without climate
change, coastal areas face a litany of problems associated
with population growth, habitat change, resource over-
exploitation and degradation, water pollution, and
changes in freshwater ﬂows. Climate change is expected
to amplify many of these and other stresses on coastal
areas. This in turn increases the need and urgency to
include coastal adaptation as part of eﬀective coastal
management. As a consequence of these realities,
climate change is considered by many to be one of the
most important challenges of the 21st century and a
priority for immediate action for coastal areas.

In 2007, the Global Climate Change Team in the
United States Agency for International Development
(USAID) Bureau for Economic Growth, Agriculture

and Trade developed guidance to help USAID Missions
and partners account for and address vulnerabilities
to climate variability and change in their projects
and programs. The document, Adapting to Climate
Variability and Change – A Guidance Manual for
Development Planning (USAID, 2008), is structured
around a six-step vulnerability and adaptation (V&A)
process

. This process helps planners and stakeholders

to assess vulnerability to climate variability and change,
and to identify, assess, select, implement, and evaluate
adaptation options that reduce climate impacts.

The V&A Manual was intended as general guidance on
the full range of climate concerns and impacted sectors.
It provides links to important sources of information
and tools and oﬀers a broad overview of methods and
best practices for conducting vulnerability assessments
and evaluating adaptation measures. The V&A Manual
includes case studies illustrating some of these best
practices.

This coastal adaptation Guidebook is a companion
document to the V&A Manual and provides the
practitioner with more detailed and sector-speciﬁc

1 The six steps are: 1) Screen for vulnerability; 2) Identify
adaptations; 3) Conduct analysis; 4) Select course of action;
5)Implement adaptations; and 6) Evaluate adaptations

INTRODUCTION

guidance for responding to climate variability and
change impacts on coastal areas. The emphasis is on
developing country contexts.

The Guidebook’s primary goals are to:

Advance understanding of climate change impacts
along coasts, vulnerability, and approaches for
mainstreaming coastal adaptation measures into
development policies, plans, and programs

Provide practical adaptation options for responding
to the impacts of climate variability and change on
the coast

Draw lessons from experience on how to overcome
implementation barriers and utilize an adaptive
management approach to coastal climate adaptation

TERMINOLOGY

Adaptation:

Adjustment in natural or

human systems in response to actual or
expected climatic changes or their impacts,
so as to reduce harm or exploit beneficial
opportunities.

Climate change:

Any change in weather

averaged over time due to natural variability or
because of human activity.

Climate variability:

Variations in the mean

state and other statistics (such as standard
deviations, the occurrence of extremes, etc.)
of the climate on all temporal and spatial
scales beyond that of individual weather
events. Examples of climate variability include
extended droughts, floods, and conditions
that result from periodic El Niño and La Niña
events.

Hazard Mitigation:

Sustained action taken

to reduce or eliminate long-term risk to life and
property from a hazard event. Considered as
one of four phases of emergency management,
together with preparedness, response, and
recovery.

Mitigation:

Within a climate change context,

mitigation is a human intervention to actively
reduce the production of greenhouse gas
emissions (reducing energy consumption in
transport, construction, at home, at work etc.),
or to remove the gases from the atmosphere
(sequestration)

Vulnerability:

The degree to which a human

or natural system is susceptible to, or unable
to cope with, adverse effects of climate change.
Vulnerability is a function of the character,
magnitude, and rate of climate variation to
which a system is exposed, its sensitivity, and its
adaptive capacity.

1.2 ROADMAP

THE GUIDEBOOK

The Guidebook follows a common approach, or
cycle, to program development as shown in Figure
1.1. The approach is similar to the Integrated
Coastal Management (ICM) policy cycle often used
by coastal practitioners and includes the following
steps: vulnerability assessment (Step 1), planning
and selection of a course of action (Step 2), formal
adoption or mainstreaming of adaptation actions (Step
3), implementation (Step 4), and evaluation (Step 5).
This highlights a central message of the Guidebook:
the process of coastal planning and action is not
radically changed by applying a climate lens. While the
process and good practices of planning and program
management apply equally to climate change as they
do to other coastal issues, the Guidebook will show
that some of the strategies of coastal management
are inﬂuenced by climate change considerations. For
example, there will be greater emphasis on nature-
based adaptations and a longer planning horizon must
be taken into account.

Each chapter of the Guidebook refers to one of the
ﬁve steps of the program cycle. Chapter 2 focuses on
diagnosis of coastal climate change impacts, trends, and
vulnerability. Chapter 2 also summarizes current stresses
and threats to coastal areas from development pressures
and weaknesses in management.

Coastal communities are likely to face a number
of climate-impacted issues and challenges—some
in the near term and others within the next several

years or decades. Chapter 3 provides guidance on
setting priorities and formulating adaptation goals.
It also provides a list of 17 adaptation measures and
summarizes the criteria for evaluating and selecting
adaptations.

ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

Coastal adaptation requires a mandate and funding.
Chapter 4 describes how coastal V&A can be
mainstreamed into public planning and budgeting
processes and policies at national, sub-national, and
local scales. ICM experience has taught us that the list of
potential obstacles to successful mainstreaming is long.
This chapter presents lessons learned on overcoming
these obstacles and oﬀers strategies and preconditions
for sustained mainstreaming of coastal adaptation.

After the adaptation options have been evaluated and
selected and once there is a formal mandate and funding

to proceed, you are ready to take action. Chapter
5 focuses on making adaptation plans operational
and overcoming typical obstacles to successful
implementation.

Coastal adaptation is not a one-time event. It is an
adaptive and iterative process. Chapter 6 focuses
on evaluating the progress of the actions that are
undertaken and adapting to changing conditions based
on valid reasons and circumstances.

Step 1
Assess

vulnerability

Chapter 2
Assess climate
change
impacts,
trends and
vulnerability

Step 2

Select course

of action

Chapter 3
Prioritize
issues and
define
adaptation
goals

Analyze
and select
adaptation
measures

Step 3

Mainstream

coastal

adaptation

Chapter 4
Mainstream
coastal
adaptation in
policy, plans,
and programs

Secure
mandate and
funding

Step 4

Implement

Adaptation

Chapter 5
Implement
adaptations

Take actions to
build capacity
and avoid
implemenntation
barriers

Step 5

Evaluate for

adaptive

management

Chapter 6
Evaluate
adaptations

Take adaptive
actions

Figure 1.1 A coastal adaptation
roadmap applies a climate lens to the
ICM policy cycle often used by coastal
practitioners

INTRODUCTION

Each chapter of the Guidebook refers to one of the
ﬁve steps of the program cycle. Chapter 2 focuses on
diagnosis of coastal climate change impacts, trends, and
vulnerability. Chapter 2 also summarizes current stresses
and threats to coastal areas from development pressures
and weaknesses in management.

Coastal communities are likely to face a number
of climate-impacted issues and challenges—some
in the near term and others within the next several
years or decades. Chapter 3 provides guidance on
setting priorities and formulating adaptation goals.
It also provides a list of 17 adaptation measures and
summarizes the criteria for evaluating and selecting
adaptations.

Coastal adaptation requires a mandate and funding.
Chapter 4 describes how coastal V&A can be
mainstreamed into public planning and budgeting

processes and policies at national, sub-national, and
local scales. ICM experience has taught us that the list of
potential obstacles to successful mainstreaming is long.
This chapter presents lessons learned on overcoming
these obstacles and oﬀers strategies and preconditions
for sustained mainstreaming of coastal adaptation.

After the adaptation options have been evaluated and
selected and once there is a formal mandate and funding
to proceed, you are ready to take action. Chapter
5 focuses on making adaptation plans operational
and overcoming typical obstacles to successful
implementation.

Coastal adaptation is not a one-time event. It is an
adaptive and iterative process. Chapter 6 focuses
on evaluating the progress of the actions that are
undertaken and adapting to changing conditions based
on valid reasons and circumstances.

ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

This chapter first provides an overview of climate
change observations and trends in the coastal zone, their
impacts on coastal sectors, and the panoply of existing
threats to human and natural ecosystems in the coastal
zone. Climate change only amplifies these threats
and further increases the challenges of strategically
managing the coasts and seas and their extraordinary
but shrinking resources. The chapter then explores four
critical factors: climate change projections, exposure
to climate change, sensitivity to climate change, and
the capacity of society to cope with actual or expected
climate changes (adaptive capacity and resiliency of
coastal ecosystems). Coastal vulnerability hot-spots are
also highlighted.

2.1 GLOBAL

CLIMATE

CHANGE AND THREATS TO
THE WORLD’S COASTS

There is scientiﬁc consensus that increases in greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere drive the warming of air and
sea temperatures and cause the world’s oceans to acidify
from the carbon dioxide they absorb. Even if greenhouse
gases were capped today, air and sea temperatures
will continue to rise as a result of past emissions—as
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere have a lifetime
of between 10 and several thousand years. Warming
of air and sea induces precipitation change, sea level
rise, and more extreme weather events (e.g., storms
and sea surge). The most signiﬁcant and immediate
consequences of these climate changes for the world’s
coasts include coastal erosion, flooding, drought,
saltwater intrusion, and ecosystem change. There are
also other health, economic and social impacts.

These climate changes and impacts are already aﬀecting
coastal areas and ecosystems and projections for the
coming decades paint a somber picture. Table 2.1
summarizes observations and trends of the effects
of increased greenhouse gases on coastal and ocean
systems.

Rising sea-level poses a severe threat to countries
where their coastal regions have heavy concentrations

of population and economic activity. Through the
20th century, global rise of sea level contributed to
increased coastal inundation, erosion and ecosystem
loss (IPCC, 2007a). Until recently, studies of sea level
rise typically predicted a 0-1 meter rise during the 21st
century. For example, the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC) anticipates that sea level will
rise by 0.6 m or more by 2100 (IPCC, 2007c). Ocean
thermal expansion was expected to be the dominating
factor behind this rise. However, new data on rates of
deglaciation (the uncovering of land previously covered
by a glacier) in Greenland and Antarctica suggest that
glacial melt may play a signiﬁcant role in creating an
even greater rise in sea level—i.e., 1-3 meters in this
century (Dasgupta et al., 2007). A rise of this amount
would displace hundreds of millions of people in the
developing world.

Sea level rise and other changes brought on by climate
change can aﬀect land-based activities (see Figure 2.1)
and coastal ecosystems, especially wetlands and coral
reefs, and have serious implications for the well-being
of societies dependent on coastal ecosystems for goods
and services. Rises in marine/coastal water surface
temperatures lead to the bleaching and widespread
mortality of coral reefs. Further, saltwater will displace
or at least intrude coastal aquifers; and estuarine
systems will likely become more brackish. Alterations
to estuarine and marine ecosystems will have potentially
severe impacts on ﬁsheries and the goods and services
provided by marine and coastal biodiversity.

As more carbon dioxide (CO

) dissolves in the oceans,

they become more acidic (decreased seawater pH). This
creates the potential for widespread eﬀects on marine
ecosystems. It may inhibit calciﬁcation, which will
threaten the survival of coral-reef ecosystems. It will
inhibit the growth of calcareous algae at the base of the
food web and of shell-forming marine organisms (such

VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT

;

Assess climate change projections

Assess exposure to climate change

Assess sensitivity to climate change

Assess health of coastal habitats and
ecosystems

Assess adaptive capacity

“A 0.5 °C increase in sea surface temperature
is associated with a 40 percent increase in
hurricane frequency and activity.” Saunders and
Lea, Nature, January 29, 2008

ASSESS VULNERABILITY

Table 2.1 A Summary of climate change observations and trends in the coastal zone

Coastal Impact

Observations

Projected Trends

Sea Level Rise

For the 20th century, sea levels rose at a rate of 1.7 to
1.8 mm/yr

In the last decade, the worldwide average rate was
measured to be 3.0 mm/yr

Coastal erosion is increasingly observed around the
world; it can be related to either sea level rise or
subsidence, or both

Sea levels are expected to rise by at least 0.6 meters
by the century’s end; glacial melt is expected to
increase this rise

Coastal flooding could grow tenfold or more by the
2080s, affecting more than 100 million people per year
due to sea-level rise, especially in Southeast Asia

It is projected that seawater intrusion due to sea-
level rise could severely affect aquaculture in heavily-
populated mega-deltas, such as in Southeast Asia

A one-meter rise in sea level could inundate 17%
of Bangladesh and completely flood the Republic of
Maldives, reduce Bangladesh’s rice farming land by half
and affect millions of livelihoods

A 2°C increase in temperature could result in the loss
of a number of island states

Sea Surface

Temperature

Change

Between 1970 and 2004, sea surface temperatures
around the planet rose between 0.2-1.0°C, with a
mean increase of 0.6°C

The Caribbean Sea has warmed by 1.5°C in the last
100 years

Observations since 1961 show that the ocean has
been absorbing more than 80% of the heat added to
the climate system

Changes in water temperature caused wide scale coral
bleaching in the Asia region, damaging as much as 75-
100% of coral in the Philippines in 1998

By 2100, temperatures are projected to rise in the
tropical Atlantic (2-4°C), Pacific (1.5-3.5°C) and Indian
(3°C) Oceans

Increases in sea surface temperature of about 1-3°C
are projected to result in more frequent coral
bleaching events and widespread mortality

Studies project that with a 1°C increase in sea surface
temperatures, all coral reefs in the Great Barrier Reef,
Southeast Asia and the Caribbean could be bleached

Increased

Frequency

of Extreme

Weather

Events

Increases in category 4 and 5 tropical cyclones,
hurricanes and typhoons during the 20th century have
been reported

Tropical cyclone activity has increased since 1970, with
a trend towards longer lived storms and storms of
greater intensity

Mass mortality of mangrove species in the Caribbean
has been attributed to the increased frequencies of
hurricanes in the region

El Niño events have become more frequent, persistent
and intense during the last 20 years compared to the
previous 100

Models project a likely increase of peak wind
intensities and increased mean and peak near-storm
precipitation in future tropical cyclones

The population exposed to flooding by storm surges
will increase over the 21st century, especially in South,
Southeast and East Asia

Precipitation

Change

Precipitation has increased by up to 10% in the
Northern Hemisphere and decreased in other
regions (e.g., North and West Africa, parts of the
Mediterranean and the Caribbean)

The frequency and severity of drought has increased in
some regions, such as parts of Asia and Africa

Very dry areas have more than doubled since the
1970s

Australia incurred over US$13 billion in drought
damage between 1982-2003

Projections for Latin America show a general year
round drop in seasonal precipitation of up to 60%
with the greatest effects felt in Mexico and Central
America

Precipitation change is very likely to increase the
frequency of flash floods and large-area floods in many
regions

In Tarawa, Kiribati, it is projected that drought damages
could to reach 18% of the gross domestic product by
2050

Ocean

Acidification

Since 1750, an average decrease in pH of 0.1 units has
been observed

It is projected that the pH of the world’s oceans could
fall by up to a further 0.3 – 0.4 units by 2100, resulting
in the lowest ocean pH levels in 20 million years

Sources: IPCC, 2007a, b; IUCN, 2007.

ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

as scallops), and it will stunt the
growth of calciﬁed skeletons in many
other marine organisms, including
commercial ﬁsh species.

Rising sea-level coupled with
increased sea surface temperatures
is expected to contribute to more
frequent and severe extreme weather
events, such as coastal storms. These,
in turn, will generate larger waves,
storm surges, and increased coastal
erosion. Annually, about 120 million
people are exposed to tropical cyclone
hazards alone; storms killed 250,000
people between 1980 and 2000
(IPCC, 2007a).

The recent human tragedies of the
December 2004 Indian Ocean
tsunami, Hurricane Katrina (United States, August
2005), Cyclone Sidr (Bangladesh, November 2007) and
the Cyclone Nargis (Myanmar, May 2008) prove that
coastal calamities can overwhelm resources and disaster
responses of developed and less developed nations alike.
Each coastal disaster provides tangible examples of the
potential impacts that may unfold during the next
century as a result of global warming and associated sea-
level rise. As real disasters unfold around us, the need
for global action today becomes ever more obvious and
pressing.

Rainfall patterns are also changing and the eﬀects
of El Niño and La Niña episodes have worsened.
This has resulted in increased cyclones, ﬂooding and
drought cycles. Runoﬀ from more intense precipitation

and changes in seasonal freshwater ﬂows in many
coastal environments can result in broad ecosystem
changes. This includes changes in coastal erosion and
sedimentation to which mangroves, estuaries, and coral
reefs are particularly vulnerable. Meanwhile, nutrient-
rich runoﬀ under conditions of higher sea surface
temperature will likely promote coastal hypoxia or
seasonal hypoxic events. Changing weather patterns
aﬀect the distribution and range of species and disrupt
the natural balance of many ecosystems and this has
potential impacts on ﬁsheries. When bacteria, viruses,
mosquitoes or other disease vectors change their
geographical range as a result of global warming,
diseases also spread.

Figure 2.1 Vulnerability to sea level rise and storm surge

Source: Maryland Commission on Climate Change,

Adaptation & Response Working Group. 2008

Erosion impacts both public and private investments which
are often built too close to the shore or do not consider
appropriate building techniques for dynamic shorelines.

CORAL REEFS AND SEA
SURFACE TEMPERATURE RISE

Scientists estimate the world has already lost
30% of its coral reefs, mostly from the effects
of overfishing, nutrient pollution, and habitat
conversion, but coral bleaching and increasingly
acidic seas—both associated with climate
change—are exacerbating these effects and
pushing many coral reefs over the edge. With
climate change, more than 80% of the world’s
coral reefs may die within decades.

Sources: Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2007

and Nelleman, et al., 2008

ASSESS VULNERABILITY

In short, climate change is increasing the frequency
of natural disasters with overarching impacts on the
health and resilience of coastal ecosystems and the
global economy. Sea level rise; more frequent and
severe extreme weather events; increased flooding;
and the degradation of freshwater, ﬁsheries and other
coastal resources could impact hundreds of millions of
people. The socioeconomic costs on coasts will escalate
(IPCC, 2007a). This occurs at a time when there is an
ever increasing human dependence on coastal resources
and growing populations in the coastal zone. In some
regions already stressed with overpopulation, poverty,
internal conﬂict, resource overuse and the spread of
disease, these impacts from climate change can be
devastating.

Table 2.2 lists the many impacts of climate change
on coastal sectors and concerns. It highlights that the
world’s coastal regions are already under assault as a
result of coastal development patterns and habitat loss,
over-ﬁshing, pollution, and other environmentally-
damaging activities. Climatic changes combine with

and amplify existing non-climate stressors to make such
coastal communities even more vulnerable.

Mangroves, coral reefs, estuaries, seagrass beds, dune
communities—and the rich biodiversity provided by
these and other systems on or near shorelines— serve
critical ecological functions that are important to human
society in the face of climate change. For example, they
serve as vital nurseries and habitat for ﬁsheries, and
provide food security and livelihoods for over one billion
people; provide protection from storms and wave surges;
reduce impacts from ﬂooding; provide shoreline natural
defenses; control erosion; provide water storage and
groundwater recharge; retain nutrients and sediments;
and ﬁlter pollutants. When these critical resources are
compromised, coastal ecosystems become weakened and
unhealthy and are less resilient to the eﬀects of climate
change and variability. Hence, an important element of
any adaptation strategy is to identify and reduce those
human-based stresses on coastal ecosystems that can be
controlled. By doing this, we can work with nature to
increase ecosystem resilience and thereby increase the
ability of coasts to cope with climate change.

Table 2.2 Threats to the coastal environment

Sector

Climate Change Threats

Other Human Threats

Coral Reefs,

Coastal

Wetlands and

Ecosystems

Loss of coral reefs from coral bleaching and ocean
acidification

Loss or migration of coastal wetland ecosystems,
including salt marshes and mangroves

Runoff from more intense precipitation causing
coastal erosion, and sedimentation adversely affecting
estuaries and coral reefs

Nutrient rich runoff under conditions of higher sea
surface temperature

promoting coastal hypoxia and

marine dead zones

Change in the distribution and abundance of
commercially valuable marine species

Increased spread of exotic and invasive species

30 percent of the world’s coral reefs have been lost
as a consequence of overfishing, pollution, and habitat
destruction

Intense coastal development and habitat loss

Pollution and marine dead zones

Conversion of mangroves

and wetlands for

mariculture

Disruption of the quantity, quality, and timing of
freshwater inflows

to estuaries

Damage to seagrass beds from sedimentation,
recreational boating, fishing and tourism

Coral mining

for construction and lime making

Oil spills

from shipping

Spread of invasive species

Coastal reinforcement disrupts natural shoreline
processes

Sand and gravel mining of riverbeds and beaches

Capture

Fisheries

Overall decline in ocean productivity

Eutrophication

and coral mortality leading to reduced

fish catch

Loss or shifts in critical fish habitat

Temperature shifts

causing migration of fishes

Extreme events, temperature increases and oxygen
depletion reducing spawning areas in some regions

Temperature changes

affecting the abundance and

distribution of marine pathogens

Ocean acidification

and increases in temperature

damaging coral reefs

Over-harvesting

Destructive fishing

practices (e.g., bottom trawling,

dynamite fishing, beach seining)

Land-based sources of pollution (sewage, industrial
waste, nutrient runoff, etc.)

Sedimentation

of coastal systems from land-based

sources

ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

Sector

Climate Change Threats

Other Human Threats

Mariculture

Increases in water temperature could result in
unpredictable changes

in culture productivity

Environmental changes could increase stress and
vulnerability to pathogens and parasites in cultured
organisms

Overall decline in ocean productivity reduces supplies
of wild fish used for fish meal for mariculture sector

Changes in weather patterns and extreme weather
events reduce productivity and damage operations
(loss of infrastructure and stock)

Overexploitation

of juveniles and larvae seed stock

for fish farms

Release of chemicals, nutrients and sediment in pond
effluents

Spreading of pathogens

and disease to local

ecosystems and neighboring culture operations

Loss of protective habitats

from improper siting of

mariculture facilities

Recreation

and Tourism

Storms, erosion, and precipitation

damaging

infrastructure and causing losses to beaches

Compromised water quality and increasing beach
closures

Increases in tourism insurance costs on high-risk
coasts

Improper siting

of tourist facilities

Alteration

of the shoreline, coastal processes and

habitat

Strain on freshwater resources for tourist facilities

Marine pollution

and habitat disruption from

recreational boating

Freshwater

Resources

Saltwater intrusion

of freshwater sources

Encroachment of saltwater into estuaries and coastal
rivers

Waves and storm surges reaching further inland,
increasing coastal inundation and flooding

Decreased precipitation,

enhancing saltwater intrusion,

and exacerbating water supply problems

Discharge of untreated sewage and chemical
contamination

of coastal waters

Unregulated freshwater extraction and withdrawal of
groundwater

Upstream dams

Enlargement and dredging of waterways

Human

Settlements

Coastal inundation causing relocation inland

Building and infrastructure damage from increasing
coastal storm intensity and flood exposure

Sea level rise

raising water levels during storm surge

Reduced clearance under bridges

Overtopping of coastal defense structures

Sea level rise,

erosion, and extreme weather events

leading to degradation of natural coastal defense
structures

Rapid increase in coastal development projected to
impact 91% of all inhabited coasts by 2050

Inappropriate siting of infrastructure

Shoreline armoring

Habitat conversion and biodiversity los

Human Health

Heat stress

from extremely hot periods

Injuries, illness, and loss of lives due to extreme
weather events

Malnutrition

and food shortages during extreme

events

Increased spread of vector-borne disease (dengue
fever and malaria), waterborne diseases (diarrhea) and
toxic algae (ciguatera)

Pollution

and water contamination

Conflict

Coastal land loss

leading to coastal land and resource

scarcity or loss, and human migration

Water use

conflicts due to scarcity

Population migration to urban areas as ocean
productivity and food availability declines and fishers
are displaced

Displacement

and loss of shore access resulting from

tourism and coastal development

Sources: IPCC, 2007a, b; IUCN, 2007

2.2 VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT

Assessing a coastal area’s vulnerability to the impacts of
climate change involves understanding: 1) the climate
projections for a given region or locale, 2) what is at
risk (climate change exposure and sensitivity), and 3)

the capacity of society to cope with the expected or
actual climate changes (adaptive capacity). Combined,
these three factors deﬁne the vulnerability of people
in a place to climate change. Figure 2.1 illustrates this
relationship, which is described in the subsequent four
sub-sections.

ASSESS VULNERABILITY

Figure 2.2 Vulnerability framework

CLIMATE

CHANGE

projections and

trends

SENSITIVITY

The degree to

which the coast

andpeople are

impacted

EXPOSURE

Types and amount

of assets at risk

POTENTIAL

IMPACT

That may occur

without planned

adaptation

ADAPTIVE

CAPACITY

Ability to cope

with actual or

expected changes

VULNERABILITY

Source: Adapted from Allison, 2007.

2.2.1 ASSESSING CLIMATE
PROJECTIONS FOR A COASTAL AREA

Tailoring adaptation measures to climate change
requires information on climate processes and impacts
for speciﬁc coastal areas over a timeframe much longer
than the typical 5-10 years used for planning and policy.
When assessing vulnerability and what to do about it,
it is reasonable to use a 100 year timeframe—since we
know climate change impacts will grow stronger with
time.

Successful adaptation requires setting clear geographic
boundaries within which to focus the assessment and
actions. This is especially diﬃcult in coastal areas, but
it is important. Here, the interconnectedness of issues
is ampliﬁed by the ﬂows of water from rivers and
ocean currents. A tendency is to incorporate too many
adaptation elements. Good practices in coastal climate
change adaptation include:

Match boundaries to issues of concern

If issues are rooted in the larger watershed, the
analysis and possibly the implementation must be
broader, but avoid overextending the scope of the
eﬀort

Diﬀerentiate between boundaries for analysis and
those for policymaking and action (the latter must
remain focused and is narrower) and work across
political boundaries when necessary

Understand inshore ocean currents so that, for
example, an analysis of biological vulnerability
includes consideration of the dispersal patterns of
important larvae in the assessment areas and actions

Recognize the temporal and spatial scope of
populations—e.g., coastal populations frequently
engage in seasonal employment as ﬁshers, farmers,
crew on ships; and the number of people in seaside
resorts changes dramatically between high and low
seasons

Recognize the inherent dynamics of the natural
environment, such as seasonal and inter-annual
variations in beach sand movement, and ﬁsh stock
abundance and structure

Larger scale climate change models and projections,
such as those of the IPCC, as well as on-line regional
mapping tools and downscaling models (e.g., the
SERVIR Climate Mapper

http://www.iagt.org/

downloads.aspx#sv

http://www.servir.net/

and the

PRECIS Regional Climate Modeling System

http://

precis.metoffice.com/

) provide a starting point to

understand an overall context, but lack the resolution
and speciﬁcity needed to assess the vulnerability of
speciﬁc coastal areas.

They can, however, provide a starting point from
which to overlay local knowledge on past and current
climate trends for the speciﬁc place. For example, local
knowledge can help answer the basic question: “Has

ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

the frequency, magnitude, or timing of precipitation,
extreme weather events and other climate impacts
changed in the last several decades?” A review of historic
records for climate variability and hazard events in a
speciﬁc area can also help validate the projections.
Spatial data and maps to visualize biophysical impacts
(e.g., shoreline, storm surge, and ﬂooding maps) also
aid in this exercise.

To develop climate change projections for a coastal area,
assess available information and formulate assumptions
to create scenarios that reﬂect a range of low to high
degrees of change. Stakeholders can use these scenarios to
assess vulnerabilities and identify issues and adaptation
measures. Scenarios can also help move dialogue from
a debate about exactly how the climate will change to a
discussion among key stakeholders, experts and project
staﬀ on the implications of the diﬀerent scenarios (high,
medium, low change). Projections should include
changes in temperature, precipitation, sea level rise and
severe storm events along the coastal watershed (bays,
estuaries, nearshore currents and rivers).

At the end of this assessment phase, there should be two
or more projections of climate change and the potential
impacts of each to the environment. There should also
be a constituency of stakeholders who understand the
context of the place relative to climate change.

At this point, it is useful to prepare an issue statement
that provides a concise and factual description of the

climate change challenges that aﬀect the community.
All stakeholders should contribute to the statement to
ensure there is shared understanding of the problem. An
example might look like:

“Greater frequency and intensity of storms on the
island of Antigua puts at risk the health and safety of
the population and infrastructure. It is in the long-term
interest of the community to take measures to increase
storm hazard preparedness and resilience.”

USE BEST AVAILABLE
INFORMATION AND
TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE

By integrating the best available knowledge
and involving local communities, it is possible
to take responsible action in situations
where there are uncertainties and imperfect
information. Following the precautionary
approach, actions should not be impeded
by an absence of full scientific certainty. A
skillful adaptation approach is to look at the
trends suggested by existing models along
with the trends that are beginning to show
themselves in the region in question and to
plan accordingly. Trends will continue to change
and emerge for generations to come—even
should mitigation efforts greatly reduce global
greenhouse gas emissions.

2.2.2 ASSESSING EXPOSURE
TO CLIMATE CHANGES

Exposure is deﬁned as the types of valued assets that
are at risk of being impacted by changes in the climate
system as well as by ocean acidiﬁcation. These assets
include social assets (people, health, education),
economic assets (property, infrastructure, and income),
and ecological assets (natural resources and ecological
services).

To select a course of action for adapting to climate
change, communities need to answer several questions,
such as: “What are the most important assets that
are at risk?” “What is the threshold at which impacts
will occur?” For example, in Tamboko, the Solomon
Islands—where coastal communities are exposed to
seasonal flooding—community-level assessments
identiﬁed drinking water as the most valued asset
(IFRC, 2005).

When determining the most important assets exposed
to climate change risks consider:

Impact to critical systems: Is a vital food (e.g., ﬁshery),
safety or economic asset at risk?

SPATIAL DATA

Maps and measurements of coastal areas are
invaluable to understand how climate impacts
will play out.

level rise projections, erosion rates, storm
surge inundation, land use and land cover

uses, demographics, development density,
and administrative boundaries

ASSESS VULNERABILITY

Attitudes towards risk: What is the community’s
level of risk perception and tolerance—e.g., coastal
communities with tourism may perceive eroding
beaches as a higher risk than those without tourism.

Impacts on current government/stakeholder priorities:
Does the potential impact put a major economic
development priority at risk? Will there be an impact
on a social problem for which signiﬁcant resources
have already been allocated?

Level of certainty about the projected consequence of
climate change: If there is high uncertainty about the

likelihood of a potential risk, exposure to the risk
may be considered a low priority.

Reversibility of changes that may occur in the absence
of eﬀective management response: Can the asset be
recovered after being impacted? If not, the issue
might be a high priority. An example is a coral reef
ecosystem. Once the coral animals die, the reef
structure breaks down with no easy way to regain
the ecological goods and services of habitat, ﬁsheries,
tourism, and storm protection.

2.2.3 ASSESSING SENSITIVITY
TO CLIMATE CHANGE

The potential impact of climate change is determined
by an asset’s level of exposure and its sensitivity—i.e.,
the degree of likely damage—if exposed to climate
change. For example, 100 houses along the coast may
be exposed to ﬂooding. However, the 60% that are built
on raised foundations are less sensitive to damage from
ﬂood waters. Table 2.3 highlights assets and factors
that can make them sensitive to the impacts of climate
change.

Healthy ecosystems and social groups have signiﬁcant
ability to absorb impacts. An example of this is
Vietnam, which experiences eight to 10 major coastal
storms annually. Tidal ﬂooding associated with these
storms usually leads to the breaching of sea dykes and
economic losses to the local population. To protect
coastal assets and improve livelihoods, the Vietnam Red
Cross has been planting and protecting thousands of
hectares of mangrove forests along the northeast coast

Table 2.3 Examples of exposed coastal assets and factors of sensitivity

Groupings

Coastal Assets Exposed

Dimensions of Sensitivity

Social

People, health, education, sanitation, historic

and cultural assets, social capital

Material assets and savings, secure land tenure,

community cohesiveness, the state of public

health, sanitation conditions in the community

Built environment

Property and coastal infrastructure, ports and shipping

Siting of buildings and coastal infrastructure

and construction methods, availability of
insurance systems and emergency funds

Ecological

infrastructure

Natural resources, wildlife, coastal watersheds,

ecological values, protected areas, unique

ecosystems and landscape/seascape amenities

Existing condition and health of coastal ecosystems

and natural barriers to coastal flooding, abundance

and variety of natural resources and unique

ecosystems, quality of coastal stewardship efforts

Source: Adapted from Kaiser, 2006

SERVIR can integrate and downscale global information, assess
vulnerabilities from natural hazards in real time, and evaluate
past and future climate trends, as seen here in this example of
a CATHALAC/USAID study of regional biodiversity and climate
change. For more information go to

www.servir.net

ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

of Vietnam since 1994. The mangroves have reduced
the cost of dyke maintenance by millions of dollars
annually and reduced damages from coastal storms.
Similarly, after the Indian Ocean Tsunami, a regional
eﬀort was initiated to create coastal “Green Zones” and
protect mangrove forests as buﬀers.

To assess the sensitivity of coastal assets exposed to
climate change, it is useful to answer the following
questions:

How and to what degree were social, economic and
ecological assets aﬀected by past climate conditions
and coastal hazard events?

What speciﬁc characteristics make groups or systems
sensitive?

Was everyone equally impacted? If not, what were the
diﬀerences between various individuals and groups?

What is the sensitivity of “non-exposed” assets? For
example, agriculture activities that take place away
from the coast may rely on a highly exposed and
sensitive coastal road or port for export. Losing this
transportation asset could result in a loss in the value
of the agricultural assets.

Answers to these types of questions help in estimating
the likelihood and degree of potential impacts to
systems and assets. They also help in identifying speciﬁc
characteristics that make coastal assets vulnerable/
sensitive and the thresholds at which impacts will likely
occur. For each projection, assess what is exposed and
its sensitivity to various degrees of climate change. You
can then estimate the impacts by collecting data on the
costs of the assets, number of people or infrastructure
that will be exposed.

Resilience

to coastal hazards and adaptive

capacity

are linked. High levels of adaptive

capacity lead to an increased likelihood of
being able to absorb impacts of climate
change and rebound. The Coastal Community
Resilience Guidebook provides benchmarks
and a methodology for conducting resilience
assessments in the coastal context. (USAID,
2007)

Swimming lessons for women in Zanzibar is impor tant
for their new mariculture livelihood venture. This also
builds their adaptive capacity to survive if their community
were to be hit by a large storm surge or tsunami.

2.2.4 ASSESSING
ADAPTIVE CAPACITY

Adaptive capacity refers to the ability of society to
change in a way that makes it better equipped to
manage its exposure and/or sensitivity to climatic
inﬂuences. A community with the capacities to adapt
is likely to be more resilient or able to recover from
stressful events and conditions (see text box). Referring
back to Figure 2.1, it is the ﬁrst two factors, exposure
and sensitivity, that dictate the gross vulnerability of a
coastal community and its potential susceptibility to
adverse impacts. The third factor, adaptive capacity,
reﬂects a community’s ability to manage, and thereby
reduce, gross vulnerability.

When you look at a community’s exposure, sensitivity,
and adaptive capacity as a whole, the result is net
vulnerability. Net vulnerability is the ability of a
community to manage risk and thus minimize or
prevent potential impacts. For example, a coastal
region could have high gross vulnerability, but relatively
moderate net vulnerability as a result of its high adaptive
capacity. The reverse is also possible—i.e., a coastal area
with low gross vulnerability may be compromised by its
limited degree of adaptive capacity, thereby increasing
its net vulnerability.

A broad range of factors reﬂect adaptive capacity:

Political leadership and commitment

Resource availability (e.g., human, physical,
technological, and ﬁnancial)

ASSESS VULNERABILITY

Institutional and governance networks and
competence

Social capital and equity

Information technologies and communication
systems

Health of environment

There are many studies with lists of determinants
of adaptive capacity. Most indicators are focused on
national scale factors such as gross domestic product,
poverty indices and demographics. These indicators are
helpful for comparative purposes, but not very useful
for local decision-making. On a practical level, the aim

of assessing adaptive capacity is to answer questions
such as:

How well do community members work together
on coastal development planning and coastal
management, including coastal hazards?

What practices are currently employed to cope with
natural hazards? Who is responsible for developing
and implementing such measures? How eﬀective are
they?

Are the public and decision-makers informed and
engaged?

Do most people rely on the same activity for their
livelihoods? For example, does everyone rely on
ﬁshing or agriculture, such that a single event could
destroy the livelihoods of many in the community or
country?

In an emergency, are there multiple means of
communicating or transporting people and
supplies? Or will damage to a single road, bridge, or
telecommunications hub isolate a community?

How healthy are the ecosystems and how well are
natural resources managed?

Adaptive capacity is not evenly distributed across and
within societies. Also, wealthy countries have greater
adaptive capacity than poorer countries (Nichols
et al., 2007). This reality of adaptive capacity has
been termed the “climate divide” (see text box
to the left). In this sense, climate change is very
much a development issue. Also within countries,
it is the case that women and poor socioeconomic
groups have less adaptive capacity and are the most
vulnerable (see text box on next page).

Assessing the adaptive capacity of a place or sector
helps in understanding why vulnerability exists in the
ﬁrst place. To reduce vulnerability, stakeholders must
understand its root causes. These are much deeper
societal issues than, for example, poorly constructed
houses being located in areas of coastal erosion. Root
causes might include poverty, insecure property rights,
natural resource dependency, degraded resources, and
weaknesses in institutions and political assets (Adger,
1999). Adaptive capacity can be strengthened through
policies that enhance social and economic equity,
reduce poverty, improve natural resources and coastal
management, increase public participation, generate
useful and actionable information, and strengthen
institutions.

In 2004 many communities in the Indian Ocean revealed a
weakness in adaptive capacity due to the strong dependence
on fisheries livelihoods, which was severely impacted by the
tsunami.

THE “CLIMATE DIVIDE”…
WHAT IS IT?

The “climate divide” is a term used to explain
the inequities and differences in responsibility
for, impact from, and the capacities needed
to reduce the effects of climate change.
These disparities influence the strategies
people use to cope with stresses and changing
environments. Disproportionate impacts of
climate change will be felt by less developed
countries and small island developing states.
Within countries, internal disparities and
inequities influence how coastal climate change
impacts different socioeconomic groups.

ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

GENDER DIMENSIONS OF VULNERABILITY TO COASTAL CLIMATE
CHANGE

Men and women are affected differently by the impacts of climate change and climate vulnerability. Women
tend to be poorer, more marginalized and much more likely to be afflicted by natural disasters. World-
wide, women are more vulnerable because of their social roles, inequalities in the access and control of
resources, lower education, poorer health, and their low participation in decision-making. Climate change
magnifies existing inequities.

Women are not only the primary victims of climate change, but they can also be effective change agents,
managing both mitigation and adaptation. Women have extensive knowledge and expertise that can be
applied in assessing community risk, selecting adaptation measures and mobilizing communities to manage
risk.

To mainstream gender into climate change adaptation, we need the following types of information:

;

Women’s and men’s resource use patterns, access, and responsibilities (to include a discussion on how
might these change with climate change, and how they would adapt)

Women’s and men’s roles in decision-making

Women’s and men’s vulnerability—the gender dimensions of different climate change impacts (e.g.
droughts and flooding) and how they would affect women and men

Understanding how men’s and women’s roles change and may complement each other when coping
with climate change

Gender inequalities are deeply ingrained and difficult to change, but you can overcome obstacles by:

;

Ensuring that participatory planning methods are inclusive and motivate, support, and encourage
women and men to engage in the process

Understanding practical barriers to women’s participation in discussions, planning and decision-
making, and in micro-enterprise

Ensuring that issues identified and analyzed are relevant and of interest to both men and women—
this will help both genders formulate ideas and engage in the adaptation process

Learning to recognize and handle conflict—personal attitudes and feelings about equal participation
and gender mainstreaming will vary and some may work against it

Establishing gender focused and disaggregated monitoring

For more information see: Gender Equality and Adaptation, WEDO and IUCN (

http://www.

genderandenvironment.org/admin/admin_biblioteca/documentos/Factsheet%20Adaptation.pdf

)

2.3 COASTAL VULNERABILITY
HOT SPOTS

Low-lying coastal areas, deltas and countries—many
of which are small island developing states—and less
developed countries are especially vulnerable to climate
change impacts. Each has social, economic and physical
vulnerabilities that combine to increase likely impacts
even further. Other vulnerability hot spots include

areas with poor and insecure land tenure, and dense or
urbanized populations that will have to migrate with
sea level rise.

Small size and isolation mean that SIDS are more
vulnerable because they have scarce natural resource
supplies (e.g., water resources, construction materials
and physical space) and limited and high cost
transportation options. The primary climate change

ASSESS VULNERABILITY

concerns for SIDS are exposure to sea level rise and
more intense or frequent cyclones/hurricanes. Low-
lying SIDS have even fewer options for adaptation
and are particularly vulnerable. However, even in
SIDS there are steps you can take to help reduce
vulnerability. Examples include relocating buildings
and infrastructure; using diﬀerent styles of housing;
and preserving coral reefs, mangroves, and wetlands that
oﬀer protection by buﬀering against storm surges.

SIDS and less developed countries share the same
economic challenges—high dependency on climate-
sensitive industries like tourism, agriculture and ﬁsheries;
a degraded natural resource base; rapid population
growth; weak administration and infrastructure; and
poor transportation and communication systems.
These socioeconomic stressors tend to further increase

the vulnerability of a place by compromising ecosystem
functionality. An example of this is the case of the Cuvu
and Tuva villages in Fiji where unsustainable ﬁshing
practices destroyed the coral reefs (UNFCCC, 2008).

Some of the deltas most vulnerable to climate change
include the heavily populated Yangtze (China), Ganges
(Bangladesh), Mekong (Cambodia), Niger (Nigeria),
Irrawaddy (Myanmar), Nile (Egypt) and Mississippi
(USA). Even in the absence of a changing climate, most
deltas are deteriorating as a result of human activities
(e.g., extraction of groundwater and construction of
upriver dams, levees and channels, and destruction of
coastal vegetation). These and other such activities have
aﬀected the deltas’ natural ﬂood pulses and sedimentary
processes (Day et al., 1997). Climate change has the
potential to amplify the further decline of deltaic
systems through sea level rise, increased storm intensity,
and changes in rainfall and runoﬀ to the coast.

However, these diﬃculties can be overcome. In cyclone-
prone Mauritius, precautionary measures have proved
remarkably successful in reducing injuries and loss
of life. These measure include creating a network of
shelters, public education initiatives, early warning
systems and the mandatory closing of schools and
businesses in the case of a storm. Similarly, the result of
Bangladesh’s investment in warning systems, shelters,
coastal housing standards and evacuation plans for its
delta areas is a dramatic decline in deaths over the past
40 years—from a high of a million people in 1970 to
4,000 in 2007 (Revkin, 2008).

Small island developing states such as the Federated States
of Micronesia are especially vulnerable to climate change.

ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

SOURCES FOR MORE INFORMATION

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 2007, Working Group II Group
“Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability”. IPCC Four th Assessment Repor t.

http://www.ipcc.ch/ipccrepor ts/ar4-wg2.htm

Nellemann, C., Hain, S., and Alder, J. 2008, In Dead Water : Merging of Climate Change with Pollution, Over-har vest
and Infestations in the World’s Fishing Grounds, United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).

http://www.unep.org/pdf/InDeadWater_LR.pdf

South Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP) 2006, CV&A: A Guide to Community Vulnerability
and Adaptation Assessment and Action. South Pacific Regional Environment Programme.

http://www.pacificrisa.org/cms/images/Nakalevu%202006%20CVA%20A%20Guide%20to%20
community%20vulnerability%20and%20adpatation%20assessment%20and%20action%20(3).pdf

Tompkins, E.L. et.al 2005. Sur viving Climate Change in Small Islands: A Guidebook. Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research.

http://www.tyndall.ac.uk/publications/surviving.pdf

United States Agency for International Development (USAID) 2008, Adapting to Climate
Variability and Change: A Guidance Manual for Development Planning.

http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/environment/climate/docs/repor ts/cc_vamanual.pdf

USAID 2007, How Resilient is your Coastal Community? A Guide for Evaluating Coastal Community Resilience to
Tsunamis and other Hazards. U.S. Indian Ocean Tsunami Warning System Program: Bangkok, Thailand.

http://www.crc.uri.edu/download/CCRGuide_lowres.pdf

Woman’s Environment & Development Organization (WEDO) and International Union for
Conservation of Nature (IUCN), 2007, Gender Equality and Adaptation. Fact Sheet.

http://www.genderandenvironment.org/admin/admin_biblioteca/documentos/Factsheet%20Adaptation.pdf

WEBSITES

Computer-based Decision Tools

Adaptation Wizard: Risk based analysis and decision-making, UK Climate Impacts Programme.

www.ukcip.org.uk

Assessment and Design for Adaptation to Climate Change (ADAPT): A Tool to Screen for Climate Risk, World Bank.

http://go.worldbank.org/AWJKT60300

Community-based Risk Screening Tool - Adaptation & Livelihoods (CRISTAL), International Institute for Sustainable Development.

www.iisd.org/security/es/resilience/climate_phase2.asp

Mapping and Modeling

Providing Regional Climates for Impact Studies (PRECIS) Regional Climate Modeling System. UK Met Office.

http://precis.metoffice.com

SERVIR Regional Modeling and Visualization System

http://www.servir.net
http://www.iagt.org/downloads.aspx#sv

Vulnerability Assessment Tutorial. U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

http://www.csc.noaa.gov/products/nchaz/htm/methov.htm

ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

Vulnerability assessment provides the basis for
deﬁning a strategic plan of action. This includes the
selection of speciﬁc adaptation issues, management
goals and objectives, and bundles of measures. This
chapter oﬀers guidance on these topics and Annex A
provides guidance briefs for practitioners on 17 coastal
adaptation measures.

3.1 IDENTIFY PRIORITIES

The vulnerability assessment identifies numerous
climate change risks and potential impacts to diﬀerent
sectors. There will likely be more climate change risks
than can be acted upon based on resource availability
or institutional and technical capacity. Therefore,
adaptation to climate change must be strategic. The ﬁrst
step is to clearly identify the priority climate change
risks upon which to focus eﬀorts and resources. These
priorities then determine the choice of adaptation
measures selected.

The information needed to set priorities comes from the
vulnerability assessment: what assets are most sensitive
and exposed to climate change, and what are the adaptive
capacities to address climate change impacts?

Priorities should be selected through an inclusive and
ongoing process that involves the major stakeholder
groups and decision-makers. It is their perspectives
and interests that will inﬂuence the criteria used for
judging risk and prioritizing concerns. Encouraging
broad collaboration and cooperation in the process
ensures the salience and public and political support
for coastal adaptation that are necessary for eﬀective
implementation in the short and long-term. This was
the conclusion of Paciﬁc Island countries (see text box

below). While there is no formula for determining
the most important climate change risks for a speciﬁc
coastal area, it is possible to draw from the experience of
integrated coastal management best practices.

Identify and involve governmental agencies and other
formal institutions—such as universities and user
groups—that have an interest in the condition and
use of the coastal ecosystems being considered

Solicit the views of major stakeholder and other
groups and, to the extent possible, the general public
(e.g., through focus groups and surveys)

Identify potential leaders and the stakeholder groups
who will be involved in the implementation of the
adaptation measures

Ensure the scope and complexity of the climate
change issues selected as priorities for adaptation
measures are appropriate to the capacity of the
institutions involved

;

Identify priorities

. Given the scope and

multi-faceted effects of climate change, coastal
adaptation efforts need to choose an initial
focus on a limited set of key climate threats
and adaptation issues that capture the interest,
imagination and commitment of local residents
and the government departments most directly
involved. A limited number of climate change
issues should be selected strategically with
attention to the complexity of the problems,
political realities, and available resources to
achieve goals.

SELECT A COURSE OF ACTION

dentify priorities

Define adaptation goals and objectives

Assess adaptation measures

Select measure or bundle of measures

LESSON FROM THE
“CAPACITY BUILDING FOR
THE DEVELOPMENT OF
ADAPTATION MEASURES IN
PACIFIC ISLAND COUNTRIES
PROJECT”

“Implementation of climate change adaptation
should utilize an open, transparent and
highly-participatory process that engages the
community in the exploration of options to
reduce vulnerability and effectively balances
the needs and interests of a variety of
stakeholders.”

Source: Taito Nakalevu, workshop presentation,

18 and 19 April 2006 in Pohnpei, FSM.

SELECT COURSE OF ACTION

3.2 DEFINE ADAPTATION
GOALS AND OBJECTIVES

The goal for addressing a climate change issue should
state the desired changes in or the quality of ecological,
economic and social conditions you hope to achieve.
Ensure the goal reflects the principles that guide
resolution of the issue. For instance, the goal to maintain
a natural and functioning shoreline may be highly
appropriate for a majority of coastal settings where a
natural, functioning shoreline represents the most cost-
eﬀective and best option to simultaneously meet several
objectives. Conversely, this goal eliminates adaptation
measures that involve hard engineering practices such
as seawalls and groins. Table 3.1 lists some of the major
categories of management goals common to adaptation
programs in coastal areas.

Goals identify the desired endpoint you want to reach.
Objectives provide the speciﬁc achievements that must
be met in order to reach the goals. The most successful
long-term coastal management programs teach us the
importance of setting objectives that are unambiguous
and time-bounded for each issue the program chooses
to address. Such objectives are best when they specify
in quantitative terms what will be achieved by a speciﬁed
date.

KEY TERMS THAT DEFINE A
HIERARCHY OF OBJECTIVES

Goal:

A general statement of the desired

long-term outcome or impact of the coastal
management project. A goal statement does
not imply that the project, by itself, will be
sufficient to attain this goal. Rather, coastal
management may contribute to reaching goals
such as sustainable forms of development,
the improved adaptation capacity to climate
change, or improved quality of life, in coastal
communities.

Objectives:

Specific statements of the desired

accomplishments or outcomes of a project.
Project objectives are quantifiable and time-
limited. Achievement of all project objectives
should lead to the fulfillment of its stated
purpose or goal.

ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

Illustrative Goals and Objectives for Coastal Adaptation to Climate Change

Functioning and healthy coastal ecosystems

The natural shoreline is ecologically sound and functioning as a dynamic system.

Strengthened natural defenses

protect people and nature from future hazards. Sand dunes, sea grass, mangroves and beaches are physical buffers.

Mangrove forest area is expanded by 30% within 5 years in any given coastal
lagoon through community-based replanting efforts

([WUDFWLRQ DQG XVH RI QDWXUDO UHVRXUFHV GR QRW FRPSURPLVH WKH VXVWDLQDELOLW\ RI YLWDO FRDVWDO HFRV\VWHPV
Reducing or eliminating non-climate stresses and unfavorable trends helps achieve functional ecosystems
that are more resilient to climate change and variability. Resilient, healthy systems can better withstand
all types of perturbations than can systems that are unbalanced or at the edge of their survival.

9 Illegal sand and gravel mining in coastal riverbeds and beaches is stopped in one year’s time

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will reduce

or eliminate non-climate stresses and non-climate trends helps strengthen fish populations and restore fish habitat.

9 Use of destructive small-mesh nets is eliminated in a given marine protected area within 2 years

&RDVWDO DQG PDULQH HFRV\VWHPV DUH IXQFWLRQLQJ DQG KHDOWK\

Functional ecosystems provide goods and services that

are important to human society in the face of climate change (storm protection, flood mitigation, shoreline stabilization,
erosion control, water storage, groundwater recharge, and retention of nutrients, sediments and pollutants).

9 Mangrove replanting increases mangrove habitat by 30% in a given coastal district in 2 years

.H\ FOLPDWLF UHIXJLD WKDW ZLOO OLNHO\ H[SHULHQFH OHVV FKDQJH DUH UHVHUYHG WR ´EDQNµ HFRV\VWHP VHUYLFHV
for future climate changes.

Identifying locations that are more stable during periods of global climate

change can be useful for conservation. In the marine environment, for example, these sites may have strong
currents, upwelling or other oceanographic features that make them less prone to thermal fluxes.

9 Coral reef areas that are more resilient to climate changes are identified within 1 year and management

plans are completed within 2 years to protect climate change resilient reef systems

)UHVKZDWHU VXSSOLHV DQG DFFHVV WR IUHVKZDWHU IRU KXPDQ XVHV FRQWLQXH WR EH DYDLODEOH

Proactive

adaptation measures can reduce or avoid the undesirable impacts of climate change on access to freshwater
supplies for meeting both growing human demand and environmental flow requirements.

9 Water User Associations in three Districts prepare water management plans and approve the plans within 2 years

The built environment is less exposed and less vulnerable to damages from natural hazards.

Reduce

human injury, loss of life, and damage and loss to public and private infrastructure with measures that
protect, accommodate or avoid the impacts of climate change on the built environment.

9 A District management plan in a given District that defines coastal development setback rules

is completed and formally adopted by local government in a two year timeframe

Livelihood opportunities are maintained or strengthened in the face of climate change impacts.

9 Community savings and loan mechanisms are established in three coastal districts within 15 months to

increase community resilience and opportunities for fishing households to diversify their livelihoods

Impacts of climate change to human health and safety are minimized.

Disaster risk management

and preparedness reduce the risks to human health and safety from natural hazards.

9 Flood hazard maps for all coastal provinces are completed in 1 year and at the same

time pilot disaster risk management plans completed in 5 communities

Governance, policy and planning capacities for planned adaptation are strengthened.

Vigilance, planning, and continually

renewed political commitment improve adaptive capacity and reduce society’s vulnerability to climate change impacts.

9 National Adaptation Plan of Action prepared by national working group within 12

months and recommended implementation actions initiated within 2 years

Table 3.1 Examples of adaptation goals for coastal climate change

SELECT COURSE OF ACTION

Orders of Outcome framework helps to sort
adaptation outcome goals and think strategically
over the long term (see Figure 3.1). The First Order
is achieved by assembling key enabling conditions
for coastal adaptation including clear goals, engaged
constituencies, formal commitment, and adequate
institutional capacity. The third goal listed in Table 3.1
above (governance, policy, and planning capacities)
is a First Order outcome. The Second Order marks
changes in the behavior of institutions and relevant user
groups. Change in coastal construction practices is a
Second Order outcome. The Third Order marks the
achievement of the speciﬁc societal and environmental
quality goals such as healthy coastal ecosystems,
improved human safety, sustainable ﬁsheries, and food
security. The Fourth Order adds the dimension of
balance and asks whether the conditions achieved are
suﬃcient to sustain a healthy, just, and equitable human
society that is sustaining the qualities of the ecosystem
of which it is a part.

Figure 3.1 Ordering coastal adaptation outcomes

Goals

Constituencies

Commitment

Capacity

Source: Adapted from Oslen et al. 1998

3.3 ADAPTATION MEASURES

In general, there are two types of adaptation—
“reactive” and “planned.” Reactive adaptations are
the changes in policy and behavior that people and
organizations adopt after changes in climate and
coastal risks are observed. For example, as the spatial
and temporal distribution of ﬁsh stocks change with
ocean warming, ﬁshers will automatically change ﬁshing
practices. As property losses from coastal storms and
sea-level rise increase, insurance companies will increase
insurance rates, creating a disincentive to locate in
hazard zones.

Planned Adaptation

is the result of deliberate

policy decisions on the part of pubic agencies
vs. autonomous adaptations by private actors
triggered by market or welfare changes

ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

This Guidebook focuses on “planned adaptation.”
Planned adaptation is intentional, proactive, and occurs
at the societal level. It is strategic and aims to address
the full range of coastal climate change hazards in ways
that meet societal objectives.

Seventeen practitioner briefs on coastal adaptation
measures and strategies were developed with the
assistance of coastal practitioners and are included in
this Guidebook. The 17 briefs were chosen by coastal
practitioners from an initial list of 50 adaptation
measures. The term “measure” is used broadly and
includes speciﬁc actions (e.g., a development setback)
and management approaches (e.g., special area
management planning) to address climate change
adaptation. Table 3.2 lists these 17 measures and their
relationship to the adaptation goals presented above,
while Table 3.3 provides deﬁnitions. Annex A contains
technical briefs on each measure, including infor
on:

mation

Relevance to climate change

purpose/application

Information and data requirements

Design considerations for developing the measure

Improving the likelihood of success in applying the
measure as a climate change adaptation

Sources for more information

Many of these adaptation measures are not “new” to
those involved in managing coastal systems. They
include strategies and actions familiar to coastal
practitioners as part of responding to episodes of
natural hazards and shocks. They are also familiar as
part of everyday efforts to implement sustainable

USAID's Global Conservation Program is
supporting the development and application of
nature-based adaptation strategies to climate
change in four large marine ecoregions—the
Meso-American Reef in Central America,
Wakatobi National Park and Raja Ampat
in Indonesia, and Kimbe Bay in Papua New
Guinea. Nature-based adaptation strategies
can help people and communities deal with
climate change impacts by protecting natural
systems and the benefits they provide—
shoreline protection, erosion control, as well as
food from fisheries, jobs, and income. Solutions
to address climate change impacts to the
marine ecosystems rely on marine protected
networks specifically designed for resilience
(i.e. the ability to resist shock or recover
quickly from stress) to climate change. Building
resilience in coastal and marine ecosystems
depends upon: (1) Spreading risk to manage for
uncertainty by protecting replicates of critical
habitats (i.e. mangrove forests) over a large
geographic range; (2) Identifying and securing
sources of "seed" or marine larvae which are
critical for maintaining and restoring healthy
populations; (3) Maintaining connectivity
between habitats by creating refugia from other
stresses, such as overfishing; and (4) Managing
resources effectively by controlling other
threats and pressures (i.e. sedimentation from
land-based sources).

For more information: "Scientific Design of a
Resilient Network of Marine Protected Areas:
Kimbe Bay, West New Britain, Papua New
Guinea." Source:

http://conserveonline.org/

workspaces/pacific.island.countries.publications

Adaptation measures are summarized as
practitioner briefs in Annex A.

SELECT COURSE OF ACTION

development—including sound environmental
management, planned development, wise resource use,
and poverty reduction. Adopting these measures with a
climate lens provides an opportunity to be strategic in
the face of future changes.

There are also new approaches and tools being
developed, such as nature-based approaches to coastal
adaptation (see text box). Nature-based approaches
include new tools for managing seascapes and
approaches to conserve biodiversity in the face of
shifting geographies. They focus on helping people
and communities deal with climate change impacts by
protecting mangroves, coral reefs, estuaries, seagrass
beds, dune communities, and other systems on or near
shorelines and the beneﬁts they provide. As noted earlier
in section 2.1, these beneﬁts include protection from
storms; mitigating ﬂoods; controlling erosion; providing
water storage and groundwater recharge; and retaining
and assimilating nutrients, sediments, and pollutants.
In addition to these beneﬁts, functional ecosystems
are critical to maintaining biodiversity and to ﬁshers

and other resource users whose livelihoods rely on the
condition of natural systems. These approaches provide
a departure for the next generation of adaptation
briefs, with subsequent versions of this Guidebook and
associated tools.

Using a single, stand-alone measure is usually not
the best approach. To respond eﬀectively to a wide
array of climate change impacts requires combining
complementary measures. In selecting the best
combination, it helps to look for measures that
have interdependencies, contribute to good coastal
management, and bring additional beneﬁts in terms
of climate change adaptation. For example, if the
management goal is to maintain and restore coastal
wetlands, a variety of adaptation measures can apply:
coastal development setbacks, coastal zoning, protected
area management, integrated coastal management,
and actions to protect living shorelines. Table 3.2 lists
other measures often undertaken as part of a suite of
complementary adaptation actions for a particular
climate change issue or adaptation goal.

ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

Adaptation
Measures

Description

Relevance to Climate Change

FUNCTIONING AND HEALTHY COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AS A PRIMARY GOAL

Coastal wetland

Provides nursery habitats for fisheries, ecosystems services for communities and their

protection and

livelihoods; serves as a natural water filter, buffer against coastal ecosystems. Climate change

restoration

mitigation and adaptation measure.

Acts as buffer against extreme weather events, storm
surge, erosion, and floods; limits salt water intrusion.

Formal or informal agreements between parties to exchange benefits, take or refrain from

Marine conservation

certain actions, transfer certain rights and responsibilities in order to restore and protect fragile

agreements

coastal and marine ecosystems.

Improves the resilience of coastal ecosystems to climate
change and improves the economic and social conditions
of coastal communities.

Intertidal or subtidal terrain areas, their waters, flora, fauna, and cultural and historical features,

Marine protected

of which part or all is protected. An overarching management approach or strategy that can be

areas

used to bundle a series of measures.

Maintains healthy and resilient coastal habitats and
fisheries productivity; acts as “refugia” and critical sources
of new larval recruits.

Payment for

Financial instruments under which beneficiaries of ecosystem services compensate the suppliers

Provides incentives to protect critical habitats that defend

environmental

as a means to fund sustainable environmental management policies and actions. No-regrets

against damages from flooding and storm surges as well

services

option.

as coastal erosion.

BUILT ENVIRONMENT IS LESS EXPOSED AS A PRIMARY GOAL

Beach and dune
nourishment

Process of adding sand to enlarge and enhance coastal beach and dune features as well as,
in many cases, planting grasses and native vegetation. Level and rate of nourishment can be
adjusted to adapt to rising sea levels.

Protects shores and restores beaches; serves as a “soft”
buffer against flooding, erosion, scour and water damage.

By incorporating climate considerations (e.g. effects of

Delineate the minimum technical and safety requirements for the design and construction of

flooding, waves and wind) in building design, it reduces

Building standards

residential and commercial structures as a means to promote occupant health, welfare and

damages and human safety risks from climate change

safety. Can be prescriptive or objective-oriented.

impacts, including extreme events, sea level rise, and
flooding.

Coastal
development
setbacks

Set distance from a coastal feature within which all or specific types of development are
prohibited; often includes a buffer. Useful within an overarching coastal management program.

Reduces the infrastructure losses and human safety risks
of sea level rise, storm surge, and erosion.

Living shorelines

Management practice involving strategic placement of plants, stones, sand fill and other materials
to achieve the dual goal of long-term protection/restoration/enhancement of shoreline habitats
and the maintenance of natural processes.

Mitigates erosion and protects people and ecosystems
from climate change impacts and variability in low to
medium energy areas along sheltered coastlines (e.g.
estuarine and lagoon ecosystems).

Structural shoreline
stabilization

Shoreline hardening or armoring; ranges from technically complex structures to the placement
of construction debris serving as, for instance, bulkheads, revetments and seawalls. Not a long-
term strategy, but option of last response.

Temporary buffer against the impacts of erosion and
flooding caused by factors such as sea level rise, storm
surge, and wave attacks.

DIVERSIFIED LIVELIHOODS AS A PRIMARY GOAL

Fisheries sector
good practices

Adapting fisheries management and strengthening capacity to deal with long-term climate-
related effects on relevant habitats and ecosystems. Can apply to production, infrastructure,
operations and/or ecosystem protection.

Contributes to the protection of rural livelihoods, food
security and marine biodiversity against the impacts of
extreme climate events, precipitation change, ocean
acidification, sea level rise and sea surface warming.

Mariculture best
management
practices

Largely self-enforced measures to better efficiency and cost in the mariculture sector in order
to increase the derived benefits and promote development.

Integration of climate change considerations helps
safeguard against extreme climate events, precipitation
change, ocean acidification, sea level rise and sea surface
warming.

Tourism best
management
practices

Actions that enable the tourism sector to improve services and business while minimizing
the adverse effects on the environment and local communities. Can serve as climate change
mitigation and adaptation measure.

Integration of climate change concerns helps promote the
sector’s sustainability as well as safeguard against extreme
climate events, precipitation change, sea level rise and sea
surface warming.

HUMAN SAFETY AND SAFETY ENHANCED AS A PRIMARY GOAL

Community-
based disaster risk
reduction

An overarching management approach or strategy consisting of structural and non-structural
measures that prevent, mitigate and/or help prepare for the effects of natural hazards. Can be
used to bundle a series of measures.

By proactive planning and capacity building that addresses
the specific needs of local communities, increases their
resilience and ability to respond to the effects of extreme
climate events and flooding.

Flood hazard
mapping

Conducted in areas adjacent to water bodies to ensure land owners, insurers and regulators
have relevant information on flooding risks.

Informs coastal planning processes and policy, reducing
the impact of flooding resulting from storm events, heavy
rains, storm surges, and extreme tides.

OVERARCHING PLANNING AND GOVERNANCE AS A PRIMARY GOAL

Integrated water resources management (IWRM) in the coastal context, which takes into

Coastal watershed

consideration watershed and estuary management. An overarching approach or strategy that

management

can be used to bundle a series of measures.

Preserves estuaries, which act as storm buffers and
protect against coastal groundwater salinization.

An overarching management approach or strategy involving planning and decision-making

Integrated coastal

geared to improve economic opportunities and environmental conditions for coastal people.

management

Can be used to bundle a series of measures.

Provides a comprehensive process that defines goals,
priorities, and actions to address coastal issues, including
the effects of climate change.

Improves the management of discreet geographic areas

Special area

An overarching management approach or strategy for a geographic area of critical concern,

where there are complex coastal management issues

management

usually within the context of a coastal resources management program. Can be used to bundle

and conflicts, including issues related to extreme climate

planning

a series of measures.

events, precipitation change, ocean acidification, sea level
rise and temperature change.

Table 3.2 Adaptation measures, goals, and climate change impacts. Annex A
contains technical briefs on each Adaptation Measure listed below.

SELECT COURSE OF ACTION

3.4 SELECTING

MEASURES

In selecting measures, it is important to acknowledge
diﬀerences among countries. What is the pre-existing
degree of awareness and salience of climate change
impacts? What is the locus of decision-making power?
What is the capacity to address coastal issues? What is
the country’s “readiness” to tackle accelerated climate
change? How are present and future environmental
goods and services maintained?

Diﬀerent country contexts drive the need to tailor
adaptation measures to local conditions (see text box).
Adaptation measures need to be commensurate with the
realities of time, funding, personnel, and institutional
capacity. Capacity to respond to climate change issues
will grow with time, experience, and the positive
reinforcement that comes with success. Early successes
of adaptation may begin with establishing setbacks
and buﬀer areas, for example, in undeveloped areas or
areas proposed for future development that are exposed
to ﬂooding and erosion. More complex adaptation
measures might include those that involve infrastructure
development and maintenance.

Population density and infrastructure are other key
considerations in selecting measures. For example, in
developed areas facing potential increases in erosion,
sea level rise, or ﬂooding, the favored adaptation option
would be structural shore protection (to stabilize the
shoreline) vs. retreat. In underdeveloped areas, the
opposite would be likely—i.e., a strategy of retreat
would be favored. Retreat refers to a series of measures
that would remove the population and development by
“retreating” landward—i.e., away from the potential
risk.

Coastal managers, stakeholders and decision-makers can
use a range of criteria in deciding the best adaptation
option within a given local context. Criteria include:

Technical effectiveness: How effective will the
adaptation option be in solving problems arising
from climate change, (i.e. might some measures be
more beneﬁcial than others)?

Costs: What is the cost to implement the adaptation
option and what are the beneﬁts? Is one approach
both cheaper and more eﬀective? Is the measure a
“no-regrets” measure—i.e., would it be worthwhile
regardless of climate change (e.g., protecting/restoring
coastal ecosystems that are already vulnerable or of
urgent concern for other reasons)?

Beneﬁts: What are the direct climate change-related
beneﬁts? Does taking action avoid damages to human
health, property, or livelihoods? Or, does it reduce
insurance premiums? Are there any greenhouse gas
reduction advantages that could be valued according
to the market price for carbon credits? Other beneﬁts
include increased ecosystem goods and services and
positive contributions to economic value chains.

Implementation considerations: How easy is it
to design and implement the option in terms of
level of skill required, information needed, scale of
implementation, and other barriers?

Some measures require sophisticated information
and specialists that are not available

Flexible, adaptive approaches require more
knowledge and judgment than a simpler, rule-
based policy

A standardized setback for a shoreline area is
simple compared to a detailed scientiﬁc study
of oceanographic, geological or other landscape-
scale parameters

Working with a resort developer in a particular
case to make adjustments may be easier than
creating a broad-reaching policy that deals with
all business owners in a tourism district who
unwittingly made investments and physical
alterations to the shore that expose them to
hazards and climate change

Tailor to local conditions.

Countries

or coastal areas may share the same
climate change issues. Yet, each has different
circumstances—climate, natural resources,
infrastructure, technological state, economy,
governance, etc.—so the responses to those
climate change issues may vary. Coastal
adaptations must be “tailored” to the local
context through an inclusive process that
matches the climate change issues with the
technical capabilities and the capacity of the
institutions and community stakeholders of the
place.

The Climate Ready Estuaries Program of the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency has initiated a review
of on-the-ground adaptation strategies available to
coastal managers, with a focus on the eight management

ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

goals critical to the National Estuary Program.
Looking at the management goals (both primary and
synergistic), together with the climate stressors, beneﬁts,
and constraints helps managers identify measures and
bundles of measures that may be implemented to
mainstream adaptation (see Figure 3.2).

Most adaptation measures can help in achieving
multiple objectives and beneﬁts. “No regrets” measures
should be the priority. For example, wetlands protection
and living shoreline strategies would be beneﬁcial even
in the absence of climate change. Living shorelines
protect from erosion and at the same time can enhance
vegetated shoreline habitats today and in the future
as wetlands migrate landward (see Figure 3.3). This,
in turn, can benefit natural resources-dependent
livelihoods and increase community resilience. Compare
this to the option of constructing a seawall—a strategy
that also could protect against erosion in a speciﬁc
location, but at the same time cause problems in the
future (e.g., erosion of adjacent shoreline or preventing
wetland migration), and bring little beneﬁt to the larger
community and natural ecosystem. Measures that
provide few beneﬁts other than protection require a
high degree of certainty about the impact from climate
change at a particular site.

As a procedure, conduct basic screening of adaptation
measures on an individual basis. For options that
are substitutes (beach nourishment vs. shoreline
stabilization), select the best option to include in
the overall adaptation strategy. Consider synergistic
impacts. Some measures will yield better results when
combined with others (e.g., combining construction
setbacks together with building codes). Take into
account budget constraints and try to consider all
implementation costs as part of the package. Finally,
be realistic about current organizational capacity to
simultaneously manage multiple adaptation options.

When selecting measures, also consider how the
measure may aﬀect greenhouse gas emissions. Many
measures can be designed in a way that reduces the
production of greenhouse gases or removes the gases
from the atmosphere (sequestration). For example,
although wetlands cover 6% of Earth’s land surface,
they store 10-20% of its terrestrial carbon. Preserving
or restoring wetlands helps protect the shoreline and
the community from climate risks and also mitigates
greenhouse gas concentrations. Similarly, building
standards for the coast can serve as both an adaptation

measure, and be designed to reduce energy use and
greenhouse gas emissions.

Local stakeholders along with the socioeconomic and
institutional context of the place will determine the
relative importance of various criteria in selecting the
most appropriate adaptation measures. The dynamics
and processes for the coastline in question will also
inﬂuence these criteria. As well, it is essential to match
measures to the resources, the technical capabilities,
and the capacity of the institutions and community
stakeholders.

Cambodia’s Tonle Sap has adapted to changes in
water levels, where the lake can rise up to 10 meters.
This floating school moves with the community as
it migrates during these seasonal changes.

No-regrets.

Many coastal adaptations yield

benefits independent of climate change. These
measures address current vulnerabilities and
focus on increasing the ability of ecosystems
and communities to cope with current
environmental pressures and climate variability.
They provide a benefit now, a benefit in
the future, and potentially provide a benefit
whether or not the projected climate changes
become reality. These options are more likely to
gain political support given that some climate
impacts will only be felt over the medium term.

SELECT COURSE OF ACTION

Figure 3.2 Adaptation options related to the goals of the U.S. National Estuary Program.

Additional

Adaptation Climate

Stressor

Management Benefits

Constraints

Examples

Option

Addressed

Goals Addressed

May help protect

Not politically

Retreat from and

estuaries, allowing

favored due to

Maintain/restore

abandonment of

Sea level rise

them to return

the high value of

wetlansd

coastal barriers

to their natural

coastal property

habitats

and infrastructure

San Francisco

Costly; uncertainty

Estuary Project

Purchase upland

Changes in

Maintain/restore

about sea level rise

Protects habitats

(planned);

development rights

percipitation;

wetland; Maintain

means uncertainty

downstream

Massachusetts

or property rights

Sea level rise

water quality

in the amount of

Climate

property purchased

Protection Plan

Land use

San Francisco Bay

plans rarely

Expand the

Could inhibit risky

Conversation and

incorporate hard

planning horizons of

Changes in

development

Development

Preserve coastal

prohibitions against

land use planning to

precipitation;

and provide

Commission

land/development

development close

incorporate longer

Sea level rise

protection for

(SFBCDC)

to sensitive habitats

climate predictions

estuarine habitats

has proposed

and have limited

recommendations

durability over time

In evaluating each management goal within their program, managers identify an initial set of measures from
which they can develop adaptation strategies to meet their management goals. Source: USEPA, 2008

Figure 3.3 Protecting wetland migration corridors will aid in sea level rise adaptation and provide
mitigation to greenhouse gases.

Source: Maryland Commission on Climate Change, Adaptation & Response Working Group. 2008

ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

SOURCES FOR MORE INFORMATION

Note: Sources for more information are also listed in each of the 17 adaptation technical briefs in Annex A

Australian Government 2005, Climate Change Risk and Vulnerability: Promoting an Efficient Adaptation Response in Australia,
Chapter 5 Adaptation: Private perspectives and policy priorities, Depar tment of Environment and Heritage: Australia.

http://www.greenhouse.gov.au/impacts/publications/pubs/risk-vulnerability.pdf

Center for Science in the Ear th System 2007, Preparing for Climate Change: A Guidebook for Local,
Regional and State Governments, University of Washington and King County: Washington.

http://www.cses.washington.edu/cig/fpt/guidebook.shtml

Heinz Center 2007, A Sur vey of Climate Change Adaptation Planning, The Heinz Center
for Science, Economics and the Environment: Washington, D.C.

http://www.heinzctr.org/publications/PDF/Adaptation_Repor t_October_10_2007.pdf

New Zealand Climate Change Office 2008, Coastal Hazards and Climate Change: A Guidance Manual for Local
Government in New Zealand, 2nd Edition, Ministry for the Environment: Wellington, New Zealand.

http://www.mfe.govt.nz/publications/climate/coastal-hazards-climate-change-guidance-
manual/coastal-hazards-climate-change-guidance-manual.pdf

Olsen, S.B 2006, Ecosystem-based Management: Markers for Assessing Progress, United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) &
Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-based Activities: The Hague, Netherlands.

http://www.gpa.unep.org/documents/ecosystem-based_management_english.pdf

Sea Grant 2007, The Resilient Coast: Policy Frameworks for Adapting the Built Environment to Climate
Change and Growth in Coastal Areas of the U.S. Gulf of Mexico, Texas Sea Grant.

http://www.urban-nature.org/publications/publications.htm

United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) 2008, Climate Ready
Estuaries, Climate Ready Estuaries Program, Office of Water.

http://www.epa.gov/cre

USEPA 2008, Preliminar y Review of Adaptation Options for Climate-Sensitive Ecosystems
and Resources, U.S. Climate Change Science Program: Washington D.C.

http://www.climatescience.gov/Library/sap/sap4-4/final-repor t/

WEBSITES

International Union for Conservation of Nature, Climate Change and Marine Ecosystems

http://www.iucn.org/about/work/initiatives/climate_news/_/climate_change_and_marine_ecosystems/index.cfm

New Zealand Ministry for the Environment, Climate Change Publications: Local Government Reports.

http://www.mfe.govt.nz/publications/climate/#local

San Francisco Bay Conservation and Development Commission, Preparing for Sea
Level Rise in the San Francisco Bay Area – A Local Government Forum.

http://www.bcdc.ca.gov/planning/climate_change/2008-04-16_forum.shtml

USEPA National Estuary Program, Climate Ready Estuaries and Adaptation Options Relevant to Estuarine Management Goals

http://www.epa.gov/cre/index.html
http://www.epa.gov/cre/adaptationoptions.html

ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

Mainstreaming is what gives adaptation the funding
and authority to take place. Once adaptation needs
and measures are deﬁned, a mainstreaming process
is required for formal approval, funding, and
implementation of the measures. In most cases, it is
best if you develop the mainstreaming mechanisms in
parallel with conducting your vulnerability assessment
and planning. This chapter describes the meaning of
mainstreaming, and highlights three mainstreaming
entry points. These are: 1) national or regional level
public policy, 2) sectoral investments and projects, and
3) sub-national, place-based initiatives. Good practices
for overcoming mainstreaming obstacles are also listed.

MAINSTREAMING

;

What is mainstreaming?

National and regional entry points

Sectoral investments and projects

Coastal places

Overcoming barriers and obstacles in
mainstreaming

“Climate change policies cannot be the frosting
on the cake of development; they must be
baked into the recipe of growth and social
development.”

Rober t Zoellick, President, the World Bank Group

4.1 WHAT IS MAINSTREAMING?

It is important to recognize that climate change
adaptation presents a fundamental challenge to
managing the coastal resources and should be
“mainstreamed” into coastal management and
development at all levels. Mainstreaming means
integrating climate concerns and adaptation responses
into relevant policies, plans, programs, and projects
at the national, sub-national, and local scales. At the
national level, climate change adaptation strategies
will be more eﬀective if they are mainstreamed into
development and sectoral plans and strategies, and
“owned” by those authorities responsible for preparing
and implementing them. The long-term goal is to
have climate change adaptation integrated into public
policy across many sectors, woven into organizational
missions, and routinely considered in decisions about
development.

Mainstreaming does NOT mean allowing the climate
change adaptation issue to get lost amongst many
other competing priorities. Rather, it means advocating
strongly for climate change adaptation and for bundles
of adaptation measures to address priority issues within
the scope of development goals.

Mainstreaming recognizes that adaptation measures are
seldom undertaken solely in response to climate change
(IPCC, 2007b). Given the scale of the problem, and
the linkages between climate change and development,
coastal adaptation will happen as an overlay to other
ongoing initiatives and governance frameworks.
Existing institutions should be in the forefront of
designing and implementing adaptation measures.
This could include those responsible for managing
water supplies, protecting public health, responding to

natural disasters, protecting coastal areas and conserving
and managing marine ecosystems.

As noted earlier, coastal countries or regions use
many diﬀerent entry points to incorporate climate
change measures appropriately. Each entry point
oﬀers challenges; creates new roles for citizens, the
private sector and government; and can open up new
opportunities.

Constructing water tanks for schools in Tanzania’s Wawi
Watershed is critical to address current climate issues and
to improve for health and sanitation of the community.

MAINSTREAM COASTAL ADAPTATION

Successful mainstreaming requires reinforcing linkages
among the many possible adaptation entry points.
Government, together with non-government partners,
must play a pivotal role in fostering the connections
across national, sectoral, and place entry points.
Examples include:

Creating enabling policy, ﬁnance and legal frameworks.
This includes, for example, prioritizing adaptation
in national planning and budgeting; harmonizing
sectoral policies; creating national coordination
committees, chaired by a ministry with power;
and providing the ﬁnancial and technical support
necessary for adaptation measures to succeed.

Capturing local experience. Coastal adaptation in a
speciﬁc place or area builds practical experience and
a sense of ownership for those living and working
there. This experience can be shared amongst
diﬀerent actors at the national level to build capacity.
Linkages between local communities and government
strengthen community voice in planning and
national policy-making for coastal adaptation to
climate change.

Public awareness. Awareness raising and education
campaigns help convey information about the
impacts of climate change and gain consensus on
adaptation options. Governments need to engage
more actively with the scientiﬁc community and
provide easily accessible and up-to-date climate
change information relevant to the needs of coastal
sectors.

National, sectoral, and place-based entry points share
an important set of relationships as illustrated in Figure
4.1. No sectoral project can ignore the speciﬁcs—the
local stakeholders, physical attributes and resources,
and governance setting—of the place where it will be
implemented. Likewise, a place-based approach needs
to take into account the types of development trends
occurring or being proposed by sectoral interests.
Projects that are already or soon-to-be underway
represent recognized priorities or issues for the area.

They provide evidence of what is salient to leaders and
citizens of the place. There are also complementary links
between sectoral and place-speciﬁc entry points and the
national entry point. For example, national policies,
budgets and legislation provide the enabling conditions
necessary for place-based and sectoral adaptation actions
to occur. At the same time, it is experience in sectoral
development and local adaptation initiatives that builds
awareness and experience at the national level.

ENTRY POINTS

Entry Point I:

National / regional settings, e.g.:

National Adaptation Programme of Action

National coastal management programs

Hazard mitigation or disaster preparedness

Poverty reduction strategies

National budgeting processes

Entry Point II:

Sectoral investments and

projects, e.g.:

Tourism development in specific sites

Mariculture

Fisheries

Freshwater supply

Entry Point III:

Coastal places, e.g.:

Municipalities, districts, provinces

Ecosystems (estuaries, rivers)

Coastal watersheds

Marine protected areas

ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

4.2 NATIONAL

AND

REGIONAL ENTRY POINTS

Until recently, national agencies and the development
community seldom considered the threats posed
by climate change to lives and livelihoods during
development planning. That is changing slowly as
climate change adaptation rapidly gains importance on
national and international agendas. National climate
change adaptation strategies need to be mainstreamed
into other development initiatives such as poverty
reduction strategies, country strategies and sector
plans. The advantages of mainstreaming are two-
fold. By mainstreaming climate change adaptation
into development initiatives, there is ready access to
the pool of resources already budgeted/identiﬁed for
those initiatives. This eliminates the need to generate a
separate resource pool for a stand-alone climate change
adaptation eﬀort. In parallel, by mainstreaming climate
change adaptation into development investments, those

investments are made more resilient. More resilient
investments, in turn, serve the community more
eﬀectively, and maximize beneﬁts and returns. It is also
advantageous to integrate and mainstream adaptation
to climate change into broader coastal management
and disaster risk reduction programs, which often exist
within the administrative framework of a country.

While there are many possible entry points at the
national level, it is essential to have a strong agency
with the authority and capacity as the champion of
your adaptation initiative. This helps ensure eﬀective
coordination with and avoids redundancy and/or
ineﬃciencies amongst the various agencies involved. It
also helps ensure coastal climate change adaptation ﬁnds
a place in the national budget. In some cases the most
eﬀective approach is to create a national coordination
committee, chaired by a government department with
authority, such as a country’s planning or ﬁnance
department.

Figure 4.1 How entry points reinforce each other and contribute to a more integrated strategy

Entry Point

III

Entry Point

Sectoral
Projects

Places

climate change

awareness & sector

needs

policies to guide

sectors

National

Regional

practical

policy

experience

framework,

mandate,

funding to

assist

adaptation in

places

projects in

sectors drive

issues

local needs (social,

economic,

environmental context)

MAINSTREAM COASTAL ADAPTATION

NATIONAL MAINSTREAMING EXAMPLES

Small island developing states in the Pacific and Caribbean have been among the first to work on
adaptation. As a regional response to the Global Conference on Small Island Developing States in 1994,
the Caribbean Planning for Adaptation to Climate Change project was established in 1997.One of their
five pilot projects lead to the establishment of a National Climate Change Committee in St. Lucia that
has advanced national level awareness, provided the information and built the capacity to address climate
change.

The Pacific island of Kiribati successfully integrated adaptation into national development strategies from
within the Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning and later from the Office of the President. This shows
the effectiveness of coordination on adaptation from within an important ministry.

Bangladesh

has produced a National Adaptation Programme of Action and has been successful in

integrating climate adaptation in a concrete way into several sectors (e.g. coastal management, freshwater
resource management, and disaster preparedness).

In Mexico, an Inter-Sectoral Commission on Climate Change was established in 2005, with the Environment
Ministry responsible for coordinating climate change policy through the Commission. Institutional
fragmentation and isolation of the adaptation agenda from the development agenda are cited as barriers
to effective mainstreaming under this framework. The Environment Ministry has little leverage over other
government departments.

Tanzania

has prepared a NAPA and other East African countries are preparing theirs (Kenya, Uganda,

Sudan

). In Tanzania, a National Climate Change Committee was formed, chaired by the Department of

Environment in the Vice-President’s office. There are many opportunities for mainstreaming adaptation
through existing coastal management and poverty reduction programs if the political mandate and funding
can be found.

The National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA)
carried out through the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) has
led some developing countries to examine several
facets of climate change and the need for adaptation
measures. The UNFCCC provides support to the 50
least developed countries (many of which are coastal) to
plan, mainstream, and implement climate adaptation.
An assessment of the ﬁve-year performance of the
NAPA is instructive on the implementation challenges

of climate change adaptation. As Table 4.1 shows, most
countries are considered to have eﬀective institutional
mechanisms for developing climate adaptation policy
and strategy. Seventy-ﬁve percent have started their
NAPA.

However, only 10 percent have established national
programs and reached an early stage of implementation.
This makes the point that having a NAPA does not
immediately translate to mainstreaming.

ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

Table 4.1 An assessment of the national adaptation programme of action

2007 ‘REPORT CARD’ OF PROGRESS WITH NATIONAL ADAPTATION PROGRAMMES OF ACTION

CHALLENGES

MEASURE OF SUCCESS

PROGRESS

Identify urgent needs and priorities in
Least Developed Countries (LDCs)

All LDCs submit high quality NAPA
documents that identify agreed vulnerabilities

75%: most LDCs have started NAPAs
and are able to identify urgent needs

Identify priority projects for urgent action

All LDCs that undertake a NAPA
process submit high quality
projects for implementation

25%: countries have developed projects
from initial profiles and these are now in the
pipeline of the Global Environment Facility

Learning by doing: implementing
adaptation projects

All submitted projects are
successfully implemented; reviews
of good practice achieved

10%of LDC countries: at early
stage of implementation

All countries have effective institutional

Mainstream adaptation planning

mechanisms for developing climate
adaptation policy and strategy and good
practice in integrating climate adaptation
into relevant planning processes

10%: some 30 countries worldwide (not only
LDCs) have established national programs

Source: Jallow and Downing, 2007. (More information on NAPAs can be found at the

UNFCCC web site:

http://unfccc.intnational_repor ts/napa/items/2719.php

)

Investments in composting toilets and wetland treatment for
sewage, have been critical to reducing impacts to coral reefs in
Akumal, Mexico, stressed by coral bleaching, increased tourist
pressures, and land-based pollution.

4.3 SECTORAL INVESTMENTS
AND PROJECTS

There are a growing number of calls for mainstreaming
climate change in existing development frameworks
and sectoral investments. Development banks, such as
the African Development Bank and the World Bank,
are increasingly concerned that a substantial share of
investments are at risk for direct impacts from climate
change and from underperformance. The estimate is
that 25% of the World Bank’s portfolio may be at such
risk (World Bank, 2006). This may, in turn, increase
vulnerabilities. For example, infrastructure that cannot
be adapted to withstand the impacts of climate change
may expose more people and assets to risk.

In response, organizations such as the World Bank,
USAID, and other donors have developed screening
tools and guidelines for integrating climate change
concerns into development assistance. Some donors
are requiring that plans for sectoral investments (e.g.,
tourism, ﬁsheries) consider climate change issues in
all components of the projects they fund, including in
project identiﬁcation, assessment, ranking and selection,
administrative design, financing, and throughout
monitoring and evaluation.

Protecting existing and future economic development
is an intrinsically strong and salient motivation for
mainstreaming coastal adaptation. For example, tourism
development investments in speciﬁc coastal sites need
to account for dynamic shoreline processes, natural
hazards such as potential ﬂooding and storm events,

and the eﬀects of climate change that can accelerate,
intensify or alter the coastal conditions required for
successful tourism. Similar reasoning applies to open
water or pond-based mariculture. Key infrastructure
such as pond walls, intake structures, and canals are

MAINSTREAM COASTAL ADAPTATION

already vulnerable to ﬂoods and storms. Aggressive
development of pond-based mariculture can destroy
the buﬀering eﬀect of mangrove wetlands. This puts
coastal property, settlements, and the economic well-
being of its residents in jeopardy. In relation to ﬁsheries
investments, this would include an enhanced focus on
improved management, reducing overcapacity, and
establishing networks of ﬁsheries reserves to increase
resiliency

Figure 4.2 illustrates the signiﬁcance of mainstreaming
coastal adaptation in tourism. The center column lists
the coastal conditions needed to ensure the success
of a tourism investment. On the left side are threats
that degrade critical features of coastal tourism. This
includes those that are generated by unsustainable

tourism development itself, and those that are provoked
by the impacts of climate change. On the right side are
a bundle of tourism adaptation measures that reduce or
avoid the eﬀects of climate change and inappropriate
tourism development.

Sectoral investments often emanate from national goals
and strategies, which deﬁne speciﬁc strategies for various
sectors (livelihoods, food security, water accessibility,
energy, infrastructure, health, safety, biodiversity
conservation). This can be an eﬀective starting point
for mainstreaming adaptation, and for securing funds
for eﬀective implementation through capital investment
plans, donors or other ﬁnancing organizations (see
Figure 4.3).

Terrestrial and sea
surface temperature
change

Extreme
weather

Sea level
rise

Precipitation
change

CLIMATE CHANGE THREATS
TO TOURISM

Coastal tourism

development

required conditions

POTENTIAL BUNDLE OF

MEASURES

Improper siting
of infrastructure

Altered shoreline

Water
pollution

Impeded access to shore

Conversion of habitat

Building standards

Coastal Development
Setbacks

Wetland protection and
restoration

Beach
Nourishment

DESIRED COASTAL OUTCOMES

Healthy
ecosystems

Strong Built
environment

Strengthened
Governance

Human Health
and Safety

Coastal land and

seascape

Transportation

and utility

infrastructure

Tourism facilities

Safe, clean destination

Fresh water

Quality

beaches, reefs

and marine

habitat

Shorefront Stabilization

Integrated Coastal and
Water Resources
Management

Runoff

Flooding

Water
demand

Storm
Damage

Erosion

CURRENT COASTAL
THREATS FROM TOURISM

FEATURES OF

COASTAL TOURISM

Ocean acidification

Figure 4.2 Mainstreaming adaptation in coastal tourism

ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

In eﬀorts to mainstream, it is important to think
about existing processes where planning and capital
investments are designed. Within a typical project cycle,
there are several opportunities to mainstream climate
change:

Project programming stage

Vulnerability assessment and adaptation can be
incorporated when countries communicate priorities,
policies, and issues—reﬂected in country strategy
documents.

Project identiﬁcation

Identify options and implement actions for
adaptation (policy, program, or infrastructure
changes).

Preparation, appraisal, approval

Almost every development project design can include
a description of the impact of climate change and
vulnerability on the project and a proposed plan to
minimize or mitigate impact. The agency ﬁnancing
the project can include criteria for assessing the
project’s climate-sensitivity and proposed adaptation
strategy.

Monitoring and evaluation

During impact evaluation, evaluators can ask whether
the project appropriately anticipates and addresses
climate change and vulnerability concerns.

Figure 4.3 Adaptation can be mainstreamed
within the national development strategy, sector
strategies, or donor grants

4.4 COASTAL PLACES

A natural starting point for mainstreaming climate
change adaptation—especially with implementing
a vulnerability assessment approach as set out in
Chapter 3 of this Guidebook—is with a speciﬁc coastal
place. This is preferable to starting with overarching
national plans and policies, or sectoral development.
The reason is that municipalities, districts, provinces,
and other sub-national entities already play an
important role in disaster response and natural hazard
planning. They often implement or co-sponsor local
infrastructure, health and development projects as well.
Mainstreaming cross-cutting coastal adaptation issues
within overall government, and identifying citizen roles
and responsibilities may appear diﬃcult and costly.
However, it is less so when stakeholders take ownership
of the actions and the beneﬁts to be gained are shared.

Place-based entry points are not restricted to existing
administrative entities. Ecosystems such as coral reef
systems, estuaries, coastal watersheds, and wetland
habitats, are compelling focal points for adaptation
planning as they also form the logical unit for scientiﬁc
studies. Coastal shoreline systems, whether altered or
natural, that are already subject to a mix of uses—e.g.,
settlements, tourism, ﬁsheries, recreation, mariculture,
and marine transportation—also need to be studied
from an ecosystem perspective. Users of such areas must
recognize that their continued use and beneﬁts depend
on the integrity of a functioning system.

COMMUNITYBASED
ADAPTATION PROGRAM

A new project supported by the Global
Environment Facility will support 80-200
community-level climate change adaptation
projects in 10 countries over the next four
years, leveraging community action, while
generating lessons on community-based
adaptation best practices. (See

www.undp-

adaptation.org/project/cba/subscribe

)

4.5 OVERCOMING BARRIERS
AND OBSTACLES TO SUCCESSFUL
MAINSTREAMING

Frequently, there is resistance to mainstreaming
eﬀorts and implementation of adaptation measures.
Mainstreaming requires forging agreements with a
broad array of agencies and groups, each with diﬀerent

MAINSTREAM COASTAL ADAPTATION

policies and constituencies. Thus, mainstreaming can
be time-consuming and challenging. Some resistance is
simply inherent in introducing any new policy idea. In
the case of climate change adaptation, this is exacerbated
by the cumulative nature and long-term timeframe of
climate change impacts. It is also complicated by the fact
that diﬀerent individuals and organizations will have
diﬀerent perceptions of the uncertainties surrounding
climate change and its impacts and will have diﬀerent
tolerance levels for risk. Other sources of resistance
include:

The scope of some adaptation measures may simply
lie beyond the ability of a community to pay

Other more immediate needs and concerns may
overshadow considerations about the impacts of
climate change, which are often measured in years or
decades

Investment decisions of some industries or ﬁrms may
not have a long timeframe and may discount future
risks

Actors with the most to gain from adaptation
measures may not be able to articulate or suﬃciently
inﬂuence decisions, while others have ready access to
power and expertise

There is a great deal of experience in how to formulate
strategies for addressing these and similar barriers
to coastal adaptation. Good practices for successful
implementation that have proven eﬀective in coastal
management worldwide include:

Use pilot projects to test how a bundle of policy
measures might contribute to societal beneﬁts; then
use the results of these pilots to inform the broader
audience that will be essential to getting adaptation
measures adopted and implemented more widely

Move the debate from one focused on rights and
narrow issues that focus on individuals being asked
to modify their use of the coast, to one focused on a
common search for desired societal outcomes—e.g.,
healthy coastal ecosystems that support livelihoods

Build conﬁdence by addressing a simple issue ﬁrst;
this sets the stage for then tackling issues that are
more controversial or less clearly deﬁned

Conduct directed scientiﬁc research (vulnerability
assessment) that adopts stakeholder concerns as
real, and tests their hypotheses about the source of
problems and their solutions

Encourage a focus on interests and common threats,
rather than on particular measures that might foster a
hardening of positions

Demonstrate fairness by creating broad policies that
do not single out particular ﬁrms or groups, and do
not deprive individuals of their constitutional rights
(e.g. private property rights. See text box below)

Encourage ﬁrms or entities to recommend and help
test their own approaches and practices—possibly
accompanied by a promise not to impose formal
regulations on the sector as a result of the outcome
of those tests

Engage a full range of stakeholders in assessing
vulnerability, selecting the course of action, and
assisting in the process of mainstreaming. All
important governing institutions and stakeholder
groups need to be involved or informed of what is
happening so that they can identify with the process
and become active partners in implementation.

Community-based marine protected areas in Nor th
Sulawesi, Indonesia have increased awareness of fisheries
and coral reefs, promoted local management and protection
of marine resources while enhancing supplemental
livelihoods. Such effor ts contribute to nature-based
adaptation initiatives being developed in the region.

ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

‘TAKINGS’ OF PRIVATE PROPERTY AND ADAPTATION MEASURES

Potential legal constraints to certain coastal adaptation measures must be kept in mind when selecting and
implementing an adaptation strategy. One potentially common legal constraint involves the takings issue.

What is a “taking”?

A “taking,” or “expropriation,” occurs when a government takes private property for

a public purpose.  A taking usually has four basic elements. First, it arises by government action. Second,
it affects private property, which includes land and other assets.  Third, it must be taken for a valid “public
purpose.”  The constitutions of most countries require “just” and “fair” compensation for taking of private
property.

Similarly, if a regulation would significantly reduce the value of private properties, it may be held to be a
taking and the constitutions of many governments would require compensation to the property owners.

How could takings affect adaptation measures?

If a government enacts specific adaptation measures that

deprive a private property owner of all economically beneficial uses of the property, a court could
potentially find that the measures imply a “taking.”  This would require the government to pay just
compensation to the property owner for the loss of use of his or her property.  Takings could make some
measures prohibitively expensive.

Making adaptation measures “takings-proof.”

There are ways that governments can avoid costly takings

claims. In developing the adaptation measure, the rationale for the measure should have a clear mandate
(for example in the preamble to a regulation or law).  This is important for political, social, and legal
reasons, especially where individuals are likely to bear some of the burden.  The government should make
the case clearly and strongly for the new restrictions or obligations. If possible, the measures should be
structured to allow some uses of the property, even if some uses are prohibited or restricted.  That way,
the land retains some use and some economic value.  The adaptation measure could also provide in-kind
compensation. Finally, adaptation measures should include a mechanism for providing exceptions and relief
in isolated, extreme circumstances, for example through a waiver or other means.

For more information see Environmental Law Institute

www.eli.org

MAINSTREAM COASTAL ADAPTATION

SOURCES FOR MORE INFORMATION

Asian Development Bank 2005, Climate Proofing: A Risk-based Approach to Adaptation,
Asian Development Bank, Pacific Studies Series: Philippines.

http://www.adb.org/Documents/Repor ts/Climate-Proofing/

International Institute for Environment and Development 2003, Mainstreaming Adaptation to Climate
Change in Least Developed Countries, Climate Change Programme: London, England.

http://www.un.org/special-rep/ohrlls/ldc/LDCsrepor t.pdf

Klein, R. et al. 2007, Portfolio Screening to Support the Mainstreaming of Climate Change into Development
Assistance, Tyndall Center for Climate Change Research, Working Paper 102: Stockholm, Sweden.

http://www.springerlink.com/content/268k680115575124/

Simpson, M.C., Gössling, S., Scott, D., Hall, C.M. and Gladin, E. 2008, Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation in the
Tourism Sector : Frameworks, Tools and Practices, United Nations Environment Programme, Oxford University Center
for the Environment, United Nations World Tourism Organization, World Meteorological Organization.

http://www.geog.ox.ac.uk/news/events/ccamts

Tearfund Climate Change Briefing Paper 1 2006, Overcoming the Barriers: Mainstreaming Climate
Change Adaptation in Developing Countries, Institute of Development Studies.

http://www.tearfund.org/webdocs/website/Campaigning/Policy%20and%20research/
Overcoming%20the%20barriers%20briefing%20paper.pdf

United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) 2007, Making Mainstreaming Work: An Analytical Framework, Guidelines and Checklist
for the Mainstreaming of Marine and Coastal Issues into National Planning and Budgetar y Processes, Global Programme of Action for
the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-based Activities, UNEP, & Stockholm Environment Institute: The Netherlands.

http://www.gpa.unep.org/documents/analytical_framework_for_mainstreaming_feb_08_1_english.pdf

World Bank 2006, Managing Climate Risk: Integrating Adaptation into World Bank Group
Operations, The World Bank Global Environment Facility: Washington, D.C.

http://siteresources.worldbank.org/GLOBALENVIRONMENTFACILITYGEFOPERATIONS/
Resources/Publications-Presentations/GEFAdaptationAug06.pdf

WEBSITES

Community-based Adaptation Project, United Nations Development Programme

http://www.undp-adaptation.org/projects/websites/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=203

Gender and Environment Network, International Union for Conservation of Nature

http://www.genderandenvironment.org/

Mainstreaming Adaptation to Climate Change Project in the Caribbean Community

http://www.caricom.org/jsp/projects/macc%20project/macc.jsp?menu=projects

National Adaptation Programmes of Action, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)

http://unfccc.int/adaptation/napas/items/2679.php

Tiempo Climate Por tal, A Bulletin for Climate and Development

http://www.tiempocyberclimate.org/por tal/bulletin.htm

ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

Many initiatives fail or encounter major barriers when
making the transition from assessment, planning, and
preparation to implementation. This can be termed
the “implementation gap.” This chapter discusses the
challenges of implementing coastal adaptation measures
and responses to those challenges. It highlights nine
areas that require attention during implementation.

IMPLEMENTATION
CHALLENGES AND
STRATEGIES

;

Ensure adequate governance capacity

Strengthen legal frameworks

Strengthen personnel capabilities

Highlight costs of “doing nothing”

Develop sustainable funding

Plan for externalities

Maintain scientific basis for policy

Maintain an inclusive and participatory
process

Select technically appropriate and effective
measures

5.1 ENSURE

ADEQUATE

ADMINISTRATIVE AND
INSTITUTIONAL CAPACITY

All adaptation measures come with administrative
and institutional challenges. For example, when a
measure requires regulatory decisions or when it
must be implemented through agencies that share
jurisdictions and responsibilities, diﬃculties can arise.
Implementation may reveal jurisdictional gaps. In such
cases, it cannot be assumed that there will be eﬀective
coordination and communication between the players.
When institutions are weak, management authorities
may not be clear and may overlap. Considerable eﬀort
must go into ensuring the appropriateness of the design,
and into coordinating the decision-making, ﬁnancing
and execution of adaptation measures. In addition,
measures with a regulatory component and/or measures
that must be carried out uniformly or area-wide—e.g.,
setbacks, buﬀers, zoning, coastal management—may
struggle against an ineﬀective regulatory regime that
has limited or no ability to carry out enforcement. If
legal authority for the adaptation measure is inadequate,
actions to strengthen legal and institutional frameworks
are needed.

Responses to the challenge

Closely supervise the implementation of adaptation
measures to ensure they are undertaken properly.
When institutions invest in the human resources to
do this, they build their own institutional capacity
for eﬀective coastal adaptation. They also create gains
for good governance.

Provide support to nascent watershed organizations
in building coastal adaptation into their work—alone
they may lack the skills and experience to do so.

When securing agreements and policy coordination
with potentially competing line agencies that must
play a role in coastal adaptation, try to locate the
adaptation program in a high level position that is
above line agencies. This legitimizes any agreements

made and helps create a viable institutional
mechanism where none exists.

When using integrated tools such as special area
management planning, tie them closely to the tools
and programs of other agencies. In cases where there
is no regional or national institutional support, think
creatively. For example, establish a para-municipal
organization or a multiple jurisdiction entity such as
a council of governments.

When dealing with measures to control development,
conduct a careful review of existing policies and
regulations to identify how the measures can be best
incorporated.

Use strategic planning tools, such as a modiﬁed
SWOT (Strengths/ Weaknesses/ Opportunities/
Threats) analysis to formulate an implementation
strategy.

5.2 STRENGTHEN LEGAL
FRAMEWORKS AND ENFORCEMENT

Legal frameworks and enforcement are common
concerns to many of the measures in this Guidebook.
Judicial systems may not support rigorous enforcement
of some measures such as zoning and setbacks. In
some countries, local government lacks jurisdiction

IMPLEMENT ADAPTATION

for enforcement over marine and coastal resources.
Meanwhile, national governments that do have this
control may have little interest or requirement to work
with local governments, or may have no inﬂuence over
local decisions in urbanized areas. When an adaptation
measure does not result in the expected change in
target group behavior, it is necessary to take corrective
action. It may not be a faulty legal framework that is
the problem. Rather, it may be that incentives for the
target groups to change their behavior are lacking or
ineﬀective. For example, developers of hotels along the
coast might be induced by receiving density bonuses
(allowances to have more units) in exchange for
increased setbacks. You may also fail to see expected
behavior change when costs to the target group for
implementing the measure are too high.

Responses to the challenge

Make modifications to the legal framework to
strengthen the adaptation program

Establish inter-agency arrangements or mechanisms
to address jurisdictional conﬂicts

Create economic alternatives for people adversely
aﬀected by implementation of the measure

Encourage individual or collective self-enforcement
through cooperative user groups

5.3 STRENGTHEN
PERSONNEL CAPABILITIES

Many personnel in both government and private
organizations are not well versed in climate change
issues. Often, they also do not understand how they
could contribute to climate change adaptation.
A first step toward changing this is to create an
understanding of the impacts of climate change, the
need for adaptation, and the actions that can be taken
by the individual and by others inside and outside the
individual’s own organization/agency.

Responses to the challenge

Provide information on the climate change problem
that can help planners and policy makers justify new
or intensiﬁed use of certain adaptation measures

Conduct training and extension on the practical
aspects of implementing measures—improving
chances that implementation will more closely match
requirements

Oﬀer tailored professional guidance at the operational
level—e.g., on purchasing required equipment,
conducting inspections and monitoring

5.4 HIGHLIGHT COSTS OF
DOING NOTHING AND COSTS
OF ADAPTATION MEASURES

Often, at the point when leaders are looking for
agreement to move forward with coastal adaptation
measures, there has not yet been a determination of the
costs of implementing those measures. Nor has there
been a projection of the costs of doing nothing. This
lack of cost information makes it diﬃcult to reach
agreement on moving forward.

Responses to the challenge

Use life-cycle cost analysis in weighing benefits
against costs of adaptation investments

When possible, calculate the economic eﬀect of
expected climate change impacts on the local
economy (currently most such projections are at
national and global scales—when they exist at all)

Building capacity and providing oppor tunities for exchange
among practitioners will be key to successful mainstreaming

5.5 DEVELOP SUSTAINABLE
FINANCING

Even the simplest of measures requires funding and
eﬀort to ﬁrst put it into action and then to maintain
it. For example, if a plan stipulates that vegetated
buﬀer zones will be in place for an area of coastline,
there needs to be money and manpower to supervise

ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

the actual implementation of those zones. They do not
happen just because there is a plan.

Securing funding for a few projects or pilot eﬀorts may
be relatively easy during times when the adaptation
issue is on the agenda of the government or a donor.
It is more diﬃcult to secure funding for area-wide
implementation of measures, for staﬀ to carry out
regulatory measures, and for those measures that require
large capital investments and follow-up monitoring and
supervision.

Responses to the challenge

Engage with international nongovernmental
organizations, many of whom are incorporating
climate change adaptation into their local aid
programs

Identify and tap into complementary programs such
as coastal management programs, ﬁsheries projects,
and livelihood initiatives

Mainstream climate into coastal development, thus
using those funds to build resilience

Seek out international organizations that offer
national level assistance (see text box)

Explore the use of environmental performance bonds,
tourism fees, and user fees

FUNDS FOR COASTAL
ADAPTATION

The United Nations Framework Convention
on Climate Change has established several
funds managed by the Global Environment
Facility and implemented by the United Nations
Development Programme, the United Nations
Environment Programme, and the World Bank
to assist developing countries with adapting
to changing climate. Two of the funds are
described below.

The Least Developed Country
Fund.

In November 2001, Parties to the

UNFCCC decided that least developed
countries should be assisted in preparing
National Adaptation Programmes of
Action to identify urgent needs related to
adaptation to the adverse effects of climate
change. Countries can use LDC funds to
prepare NAPAs or to implement actions
identified in the NAPAs.

The Special Climate Change Fund
(SCCF).

The SCCF under the Convention

was established in 2001 to support projects
and programs in development sectors
most sensitive to climate change, including
coastal zone management, disaster risk
reduction, agriculture, and water resources
management.

For more information, see: GEF/UNDP
Adaptation Funds (

http://www.undp.org/gef/

adaptation/funds/04_1.htm

) or UNFCCC

Support for Adaptation (

http://unfccc.int/

adaptation/items/4159.php

)

5.6

PLAN FOR EXTERNALITIES

Many adaptation measures are “no-regrets” measures.
In other words, there are net benefits, including
some positive externalities. These can create new
opportunities. On the other hand, adaptation measures
may also generate unplanned-for negative external
effects in the short term. For example, a marine
protected area (a measure) might adversely aﬀect some
ﬁshers in the short term with the intent of increasing
stocks. Developing these measures should occur with
the ﬁshers so that they “own” the process and are
investing in their future livelihoods. Another example
is when armored structures are used as a measure to
stem beach erosion and protect property. These same
structures that are “protecting” one area, can also change
the ecosystems and aﬀect adjacent property owners who
lack such protection.

Responses to the challenge

Use an area-wide approach to policy
implementation—this helps account for some of the
unanticipated or downstream impacts of particular
measures

Look across the full landscape of the watershed
when selecting the area of concern where you will

IMPLEMENT ADAPTATION

work and, when possible, select an area where you
can engage a wide range of stakeholders to address
multiple issues

Always select your place and your issues before you
select your management measures

Emphasize the precautionary approach when there
may be spillover eﬀects from measures, especially
measures difficult to reverse—e.g., shoreline
armoring, flood control and water management
options

5.7

MAINTAIN SCIENTIFIC BASIS

FOR POLICY AND MONITORING

Sustained, long-term implementation requires scientiﬁc
credibility. What is needed is good, comprehensive,
science-based information that includes long-term
trends. For example, the general reasoning in favor of
a setback needs to be substantiated by data analysis
that compares past, current and projected future
trends for the area of concern. Also, the measure
must be monitored over time to track its eﬀectiveness.
Stakeholders need to know if the measure is doing what
it was meant to do.

Responses to the challenge

Tap into the growing wealth of scientiﬁc and technical
knowledge residing in national governments,
international agencies, and in professional peer
networks

Conduct periodic program reviews at the national or
local levels to ensure agencies and places are aware of
each others’ successes and failures

Research, evaluate, document and compare the
beneﬁts and costs of diﬀerent adaptation strategies

Conduct continuous scientiﬁc monitoring of coastal
areas tapping into volunteers, students and local
universities

Reef, habitat, and fisheries characterization and
subsequent monitoring implemented by a local Mexican
NGO has been essential for siting of marine protected
areas. policy development, and land use decisions.

5.8 MAINTAIN AN INCLUSIVE
AND PARTICIPATORY PROCESS

Nearly all the measures in this Guidebook are best
selected, developed, and implemented with active
stakeholder involvement. Yet, the lead implementing
agency may not have stakeholder involvement as a
priority. Or, it may lack the skills needed to carry

out a good inclusive process. Further, climate change
adaptation is time consuming. It requires issue
analysis, stakeholder dialogue and consensus building.
Even simple measures need to be accepted by ﬁshers
and other marine resource users, since enforcement

through command-and-control actions is costly and
not necessarily effective. Stakeholder involvement
is hard to sustain—waxing and waning based on the
issues themselves and multiple other external factors.
Climate change is a cross-cutting issue and requires
a bundle of actions that will likely require multiple
stakeholder negotiations. Yet, it can be a challenge to
keep stakeholders involved and engaged over a long
period of time.

Responses to the challenge

Before designing the policy, ensure you have the
support of those with the biggest stake in coastal
adaptation

Design policy to incorporate participatory
management

Increase social capital and interpersonal networks to
build community resilience against natural hazards

Promote community involvement and leadership of
projects to build a sense of ownership

Implement small, achievable actions that build
support for a larger eﬀort

Educate the public and property owners and
encourage them to be active in the stakeholder
process in order to keep coastal adaptation on the
public agenda

ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

Seek top-level government support and leadership to
build trust and make participation and negotiations
with stakeholders worthwhile

For actions that need formal adoption by multiple
entities (e.g., special area management plans),
treat the process as a major, serious public policy
formulation eﬀort right from the start

5.9 SELECT

TECHNICALLY

APPROPRIATE AND
EFFECTIVE MEASURES

Measures need to be appropriate for the area and its
issue(s). They must also be eﬀective—i.e., they must
achieve their intended goals. There is any number
of reasons, however, that can lead to the failure of
even well designed and fully implemented measures.
One reason is poor execution. Another is overly
conservative design—i.e., one that fails to account for
the accelerating rate of change expected from climate
dynamics. Poor construction can also result in failure.

For example, appropriately sited armored structures can
be eﬀective in addressing coastal shoreline erosion—but
only if those structures are well constructed by a skilled
builder.

Responses to the challenge

Ensure that climate change adaptation measures and
best practice guidelines are eﬀective

Engage economic actors and industry in preparing
standards and formulating designs

Take a performance-based approach to policies and
actions with a focus on outcomes

Use pilot projects and studies to test the beneﬁts and
implementation challenges of particular measures

Conduct monitoring and scientiﬁc studies to reduce
uncertainty about eﬀectiveness

Ensure that the preconditions necessary for a measure
to succeed are in place

IMPLEMENT ADAPTATION

SOURCES FOR MORE INFORMATION

Carruthers, P. 2007, Lessons Learnt Piloting Community Approaches to Climate Change Adaptation in the Cook Islands,
Presentation at the UNFCCC Exper t Workshop for SIDS, February 27th 2007, Rarotonga, Cook Islands.

http://unfccc.int/files/adaptation/adverse_effects_and_response_measures_ar t_48/
application/pdf/200702_cook_islands_community_adaptation.pdf

Leary, N. et al. 2007, A Stitch in Time: Lessons for Climate Change Adaptation from the AIACC Project, Assessments
of Impacts and Adaptations to Climate Change (AIACC) Working Paper 38: Washington D.C.

http://www.aiaccproject.org/working_papers/Working%20Papers/AIACC_WP48_Leary_etal.pdf

Levina, E. et al. 2007, Policy Frameworks for Adaptation to Climate Change in Coastal Zones: The Case of the
Gulf of Mexico, Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development: Paris, France.

http://www.ccap.org/docs/resources/434/Policy_Frameworks_for_Adaptation_to_Climate_
Change_in_Coastal_Zones-_The_Case_of_The_Gulf_of_Mexico.pdf

Mataki, M., K. Koshy, and V. Nair 2006, Implementing Climate Change Adaptation in the Pacific Islands: Adapting to Present
Climate Variability and Extreme Weather Events in Navua (Fiji), AIACC Working Paper 34: Washington D.C.

http://www.aiaccproject.org/working_papers/Working%20Papers/AIACC_WP34_Mataki.pdf

Olsen, S., K. Lowry and J. Tobey 1999, The Common Methodology for Learning: A Manual for Assessing Progress
in Coastal Management, Coastal Resources Center, University of Rhode Island: Narragansett, RI.

http://www.crc.uri.edu/download/SEL_003F.PDF

WEBSITES

Assessments of Impacts and Adaptations to Climate Change

http://www.aiaccproject.org

Global Environmental Facility Adaptation Funds (GEF), United National Development Programme (UNDP)

http://www.undp.org/gef/adaptation/funds/04_1.htm

Suppor t for Adaptation, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)

http://unfccc.int/adaptation/items/4159.php

ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

Once coastal adaptation measures are implemented,
there will likely be considerable interest in how they
perform. Policymakers will be keen to demonstrate
that the measures are beneﬁcial to the citizenry. They
will want to assuage stakeholders who have borne some
of the costs associated with the measures. The public
will seek assurances that the measures aﬀord them
as much protection as possible from the impacts of
climate variability. All parties will expect the measures
to be adjusted if they do not perform according to
expectations. Evaluation and adaptive management can
help address these concerns.

EVALUATION AND ADAPTIVE
MANAGEMENT

;

Specify the evaluation questions

Establish roles and responsibilities for
evaluation

Select evaluation tools and develop
timeline

Conduct evaluation

Communicate evaluation results

Adapt policies, adaptation measures and
strategies on the basis of evaluation results

Table 6.1 What motivates evaluation and what are the beneﬁts

Type of

Activity

Motivation for Evaluation

Benefits of Evaluation

One-time

Project

Project completion

New or follow-on project

Gauge project success

Compile lessons learned

Replicate project design

Communicate performance

Place-based

Plan or

Program

Planned/regular review

Special request from government

Unanticipated (e.g., result of natural disaster)

Adjust design of adaptation measures

Adjust implementation strategy

Identify and implement emergency measures

Compile lessons learned

Replicate plan or program

National/

Regional Policy

Planned/regular review

Special request from government

Unanticipated (e.g., result of natural disaster)

Communicate performance

Guide design and implementation of new policies and
adaptation measures

Identify and implement emergency measures

Compile lessons learned

6.1 EVALUATION

ADAPTATIONS

Evaluation is the process of review and analysis of all
relevant data and information required to determine
if the set of adaptation options is performing to
expectation. Evaluation may involve a single project
review or a series of formal and informal time-
dimensioned assessments. Table 6.1 summarizes the
motivation for evaluation and the beneﬁts or anticipated
use of evaluation results.

All evaluations of coastal adaptation measures involve
a similar methodology and steps. They may vary in
their scope, types of evaluation tools employed, and
the resources devoted to the evaluation. However,
the basic goal of the evaluation is the same—to assess
the performance of the adaptation measures in terms
of their design and implementation. The steps of the
evaluation include the following:

1. Specify evaluation questions—The role of

evaluation is to determine if the adaptation
approach is working as it should. The evaluation
may need to include several questions based on the
original set of criteria used to assess the proposed
and selected adaptation measures. The questions
should be identiﬁed early in the process. This way,
evaluators can determine if the necessary baselines
and data monitoring and management procedures
are in place to support the evaluation.

2. Elaborate an evaluation plan—The evaluation

plan should clearly state the roles and
responsibilities for the evaluation. Who will
conduct, review, approve, and communicate the
results of diﬀerent evaluation results? What types

EVALUATE FOR ADAPTIVE MANAGEMENT

of evaluation methods or tools are required to
answer the evaluation questions? What is the
timeline for conducting the evaluation? Ideally, the
evaluation plan is developed in concert with the
implementation strategy. This helps ensure there is
full consideration of the staﬀ and ﬁnancial resources
needed to carry out the evaluation.

3. Conduct the evaluation—Evaluation entails a set

of individual analyses, designed to answer speciﬁc
questions for speciﬁc audiences. Evaluation helps
policymakers review performance, guides reforms
in adaptation measures, and prompts adjustments
to their implementation. For purposes of
transparency and accountability, it may be advisable
to use independent evaluators. This is especially
important in terms of answering those questions
most important to landowners, business, and the
general public. These often include but are not
limited to questions about the beneﬁts and costs of
the measures and their impacts on the environment.

4. Communicate the results—Disseminating the

evaluation results to the appropriate audiences is
very important. Make sure your overall evaluation
plan covers this in detail.

Climate change occurs over the long term. That means
some outcomes of adaptation measures also require long
periods of time before they can be properly evaluated.
As well, there are certain evaluation questions—e.g.,
“What are the impacts of adaptation policies on
biodiversity or habitat?”—that can only be answered
over time.

One of the key challenges in evaluation, particularly
when it is conducted over a long timeframe, is to “ﬁlter
out the noise.” This is necessary in order to focus only
on the relevant information and analyses that answer
the speciﬁc evaluation question. The following factors
can contribute to both good or poor evaluation results:

Attributes of the adaptation measure

—Most often,

the adaptation measure will provide incentives and/
or sanctions for behavior change among business and
the general public. The evaluation will often try to
determine how businesses and individuals react to the
adaptation measure. Do they recognize its legitimacy,
do they attempt to circumvent it, and if so, why?

Implementation strategy

—The adaptation measure

may be appropriate, but poorly implemented. There
may be insuﬃcient staﬀ to monitor implementation.
There may be too few ﬁnancial resources to conduct

the education and awareness activities needed to
inform the public on their obligations related to a
new adaptation measure.

Changes in the political, economic, social, or
cultural context

—A variety of factors can aﬀect

performance of the adaptation measure. These
include greater or lesser political support, chronic
inﬂation or a prolonged economic boom or recession,
new policies that impact the incentives, or sanctions
of the adaptation measure.

Unanticipated climate variability and change

—

If adaptation measures are evaluated over short
time intervals, the observed climate for say a ﬁve-
year period might not accord with the vulnerability
assessment upon which the adaptation measure
was, in part, designed. An extreme weather event—
for example a 500-year ﬂood—that occurs within
the period of the evaluation may severely test the
adaptation measures.

Attributing change to the relevant factors is critical in
reaching the correct conclusions about performance
and determining whether changes are needed in the
adaptation measure or the way it is implemented.

6.2 ADAPTING
EVALUATION RESULTS

The process of developing and implementing
adaptation measures entails mutual learning on the
part of policymakers, stakeholders, and the general
public. The selection of the adaptation measure is
based on the information set, analyses, and best
predictions or forecasts of the future. As time passes and
implementation proceeds, the database of information
and analysis will change. It will expand to include
information on the performance of the adaptation

Implement

Select Course

of Action

Select Course

of Action

Assess

Vulnerability

Assess

Vulnerability

Evaluate

Mainstream

Adaptations

Mainstream

Adaptations

Adjust

response

Adjust

response

Figure 6.1 Adaptive management process

ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

measure. Also added will be information on the factors
listed in the previous section. Meanwhile, time and
changing contexts may also alter the stated goals,
objectives, and the expected results of the adaptation
measure.

Thus, as evaluation results become available,
policymakers, stakeholders, or the public may be
motivated to press for changes in the choice of adaptation
measures, their design, or their implementation.
The process of reﬂecting on these changes based on
evaluation results is referred to as adaptive management

In Figure 6.1, adaptive management is depicted by the
oval “Adjust Response.”

Adaptive management and the adjustment of responses
entail a participatory/analytical approach similar to
what is recommended in this Guidebook for the initial
analysis, selection, and mainstreaming of adaptation
measures:

1. Review the evaluation results and attribute

poor performance to flaws in design and/or
implementation of current measures;

2. If ﬂaws in the design of the adaptation measure

are to be addressed, determine whether current
measures can be ﬁne-tuned or if alternative or
complementary measures are required;

3. If modified or new adaptation measures are

promoted, revise the implementation strategy; and,

4. If ﬂaws in implementation are to be addressed,

identify, assess, and incorporate recommended
changes into the implementation strategy.

Table 6.2 illustrates the types of adaptive management
responses that might be considered as a result of
evaluation in a hypothetical place with three types of
implemented adaptation measures. In this example, the
evaluation focused on management responses following
a devastating hurricane with high sustained winds and
seas, and ﬂooding of a local river.

2 Adaptive management also refers to an overall
management approach that embodies a “learning by doing”
philosophy and is ideally suited to management of natural
resources under uncertainty inherent in climate variability
and change. Adaptive management approaches emphasize:
1) ongoing monitoring of performance through the tracking
of key variables, complemented by research to improve the
body of information and analysis; 2) periodic assessments
(evaluation); and 3) modification of policies, practice, and
institutional capacity as needed to improve performance.

EVALUATE FOR ADAPTIVE MANAGEMENT

Adaptations

Evaluation Results

Adaptive Management Responses

Community-

based disaster

risk reduction

Significant numbers of visitors and residents unaware
of evacuation routes

Preparation of awareness materials for residents and
visitors (posted in hotels and restaurants)

Improved signage

Increased staff and volunteers to assist with evacuation

Scale of disaster not anticipated in disaster planning

Revise preparedness, response, and mitigation plan
to anticipate more intense and/or sustained weather
events

Poor coordination with regional and national
authorities on post-disaster support/financing

Convene participatory discussions with regional
and national authorities to coordinate roles and
responsibilities

Establish emergency “bank” of supplies and equipment
needed for post-disaster mitigation

Coastal

development

setbacks

Severe shoreline erosion observed beyond setback
distance from the shore

Revise setback regulation to increase distance

Properties not subject to setback regulations suffer
severe damage

Accelerate removal or relocation of buildings within
the setback distance

New construction observed in violation of setback
regulations

Strengthen capacity for permitting, inspection, and
enforcement; increase penalties

Building codes

Significant wind and water damage observed

Revise building codes

New buildings not complying with building codes

Strengthen capacity for permitting, inspection, and
enforcement; increase penalties

Prepare awareness materials for builders, businesses,
and residential buyers

Levies failed to contain flood waters in river

Assess options for improved watershed management,
structural options for containing flood water in main
channels and overflow reservoirs

Significant beach erosion

Establish natural erosion protection measures and
structural shoreline stabilization options

Table 6.2 Adaptation measures and adaptive management responses

references

Adger, N. 1999, Social Vulnerability to Climate Change and Extremes in Coastal Vietnam,
World Development, Vol. 27, No. 2, University of East Anglia: Norwich, UK.

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/ar ticle/B6VC6-3X7VR3H-2/2/38ca3a1089f684fe3de2c26739bfc4ee

Allison, E. 2007, Fisheries and Aquaculture Can Provide Solution to Cope with Climate
Change, Issues Brief 1701, WorldFish Center : Malaysia.

http://www.iclarm.org/v2/files/CC-ThreatToFisheries1701.pdf

Dasgupta, S., B. Laplante, C. Meisner, D. Wheeler, and J. Yan 2007, The Impact of Sea Level Rise on Developing Countries:
A Comparative Analysis, World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 4136, World Bank: Washington, D.C.

http://go.worldbank.org/XU9B5UFR30

Day, J.W., J.F. Mar tin, L. Cardoch, and P.H. Templet 1997, System Functioning as a Basis of Sustainable
Management of Deltaic Ecosystems, Coastal Management, Vol 25. No. 2, pp. 115-153.

http://md1.csa.com/par tners/viewrecord.php?requester=gs&collection=ENV&recid=4103991

Hoegh-Guldberg, O. et al. 2007, Coral Reefs Under Rapid Climate Change and Ocean
Acidification, Science, Vol. 318, No. 5857, 14 December 2007, pp. 1737–1742.

http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/318/5857/1737

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 2007a, Climate Change Impacts, Adaptation and
Vulnerability, Chapter 6: Coastal Systems and Low-Lying Areas, Contribution of Working Group II
to the Four th Assessment Repor t of the IPCC, Cambridge University Press, UK.

http://www.ipcc.ch/ipccrepor ts/ar4-wg2.htm

IPCC 2007b, Climate Change Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability, Chapter 17: Assessment of Adaptation Practices, Options, Constraints
and Capacity, Contribution of Working Group II to the Four th Assessment Repor t of the IPCC, Cambridge University Press, UK.

http://www.ipcc.ch/ipccrepor ts/ar4-wg2.htm

IPCC 2007c, Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis, Summar y for Policymakers, Contribution of Working
Group I to the Four th Assessment Repor t of the IPCC, Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK.

http://ipcc-wg1.ucar.edu/wg1/docs/WG1AR4_SPM_PlenaryApproved.pdf

International Federation of Red Cross (IFRC) 2005, Solomon Islands: From Risk Assessment to Community Action, IFRC: Switzerland.

www.ifrc.org/Docs/pubs/disasters/resources/reducing-risks/cs-solomon-islands.pdf

International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) 2007, Climate Change and Marine
Ecosystems, Coastal Ecosystems Newsletter, Issue #6, October 2007.

http://www.iucn.org/about/work/initiatives/climate_news/_/climate_change_and_marine_ecosystems/index.cfm

Jallow, B. and T. Downing 2007, National Adaptation Programmes of Actions (NAPAs): Priorities to Policies,
Tiempo, Issue 65, International Institute for Environment and Development, and the Stockholm
Environment Institute, & the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency: London.

http://www.cru.uea.ac.uk/tiempo/por tal/archive/pdf/tiempo65low.pdf

Kaiser, G. 2007, Coastal Vulnerability to Climate Change and Natural Hazards, Disaster
Reduction in Climate Change, Karlsruhe University: Karlsruhe, Germany.

http://www.cedim.de/download/39_Kaiser.pdf

Nakalevu, T 2006, Capacity Building for the Development of Adaptation Measures in Pacific Island Countries, South
Pacific Regional Environment Programme. Workshop presentation, 18 and 19 April 2006: Pohnpei, FSM.

http://www.sprep.org/

Nellemann, C., Hain, S., and Alder, J. 2008, In Dead Water : Merging of Climate Change with Pollution, Over-har vest and
Infestations in the World’s Fishing Grounds, United Nations Environment Programme: GRID-Arendal, Norway.

http://www.unep.org/pdf/InDeadWater_LR.pdf

Revkin, A. 2008, The Dangers of Deltas, New York Times, 11 May 2008.

http://www.nytimes.com/2008/05/11/weekinreview/11revkin.html

ANNEX A – ADAPTATION MEASURES

Adaptation

Relevance to Climate Change

Page

Measures

FUNCTIONING AND HEALTHY COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AS A PRIMARY GOAL

Coastal wetland
protection and

Acts as buffer against extreme weather events, storm surge, erosion, and floods; limits salt water intrusion.

restoration

Marine conservation

Improves the resilience of coastal ecosystems to climate change and improves the economic and social

agreements

conditions of coastal communities.

Marine protected

Maintains healthy and resilient coastal habitats and fisheries productivity; acts as “refugia” and critical sources

areas

of new larval recruits.

Payment for

Provides incentives to protect critical habitats that defend against damages from flooding and storm surges as

environmental

101

well as coastal erosion.

services

BUILT ENVIRONMENT IS LESS EXPOSED AS A PRIMARY GOAL

Beach and dune

Protects shores and restores beaches; serves as a “soft” buffer against flooding, erosion, scour and water

105

nourishment

damage.

By incorporating climate considerations (e.g. effects of flooding, waves and wind) in building design, it reduces

Building standards

damages and human safety risks from climate change impacts, including extreme events, sea level rise, and

109

flooding.

Coastal
development

Reduces the infrastructure losses and human safety risks of sea level rise, storm surge, and erosion.

112

setbacks

Mitigates erosion and protects people and ecosystems from climate change impacts and variability in low to

Living shorelines

116

medium energy areas along sheltered coastlines (e.g. estuarine and lagoon ecosystems).

Structural shoreline

Temporary buffer against the impacts of erosion and flooding caused by factors such as sea level rise, storm

120

stabilization

surge, and wave attacks.

DIVERSIFIED LIVELIHOODS AS A PRIMARY GOAL

Fisheries sector

Contributes to the protection of rural livelihoods, food security and marine biodiversity against the impacts

125

good practices

of extreme climate events, precipitation change, ocean acidification, sea level rise and sea surface warming.

Mariculture best

Integration of climate change considerations helps safeguard against extreme climate events, precipitation

management

130

change, ocean acidification, sea level rise and sea surface warming.

practices

Tourism best

Integration of climate change concerns helps promote the sector’s sustainability as well as safeguard against

management

133

extreme climate events, precipitation change, sea level rise and sea surface warming.

practices

HUMAN SAFETY AND SAFETY ENHANCED AS A PRIMARY GOAL

Community-

By proactive planning and capacity building that addresses the specific needs of local communities, increases

based disaster risk

139

their resilience and ability to respond to the effects of extreme climate events and flooding.

reduction

Flood hazard

Informs coastal planning processes and policy, reducing the impact of flooding resulting from storm events,

143

mapping

heavy rains, storm surges, and extreme tides.

OVERARCHING PLANNING AND GOVERNANCE AS A PRIMARY GOAL

Coastal watershed

Preserves estuaries, which act as storm buffers and protect against coastal groundwater salinization.

149

management

Integrated coastal

Provides a comprehensive process that defines goals, priorities, and actions to address coastal issues, including

154

management

the effects of climate change.

Special area

Improves the management of discreet geographic areas where there are complex coastal management issues

management

and conflicts, including issues related to extreme climate events, precipitation change, ocean acidification, sea

160

planning

level rise and temperature change.

ANNEX A – ADAPTATION MEASURES

functioning and healthy coastal ecosystems

1. COASTAL WETLAND PROTECTION

AND RESTORATION

Coastal wetlands protection and restoration initiatives
are commonly incorporated into policy and regulatory
frameworks and are implemented by government and
non-government organizations as well as citizens and
industry. Programs acknowledge the critical functions
of wetlands in providing nursery habitats for ﬁsheries,
serving as a natural water ﬁlter for pollution, acting
as a buﬀer against coastal ecosystems, and providing
other ecosystems services for communities and their
livelihoods.

RELEVANCE TO CLIMATE CHANGE

Conservation of coastal wetlands is both a climate
change mitigation and climate change adaptation
strategy. Wetlands mitigate greenhouse gas emissions as
they store signiﬁcant amounts of carbon in plants and
soils.

Natural wetland habitats have proven their ability to
protect and buﬀer communities against storm surge,
erosion and ﬂoods. Because wetlands perform these
and many other vital functions that reduce the impacts
of climate change, conserving and restoring them is an
important adaptation strategy.

That said, a lack of deﬁnitive information on sea level
rise and its impacts on wetlands may constrain future
eﬀorts to protect them. There is also the challenge
related to site selection for restoration—i.e., how are
changing conditions expected to impact the eﬀectiveness
of restoration in a speciﬁc site/area?

Most countries have wetland protection and
restoration programs of various types that contribute
to their environmental management objectives. Many
international conferences, declarations and agreements
call for wetland protection. One of these is The

Convention on Wetlands. Signed in Ramsar, Iran, in
1971, it is an intergovernmental treaty that provides
the framework for national action and international
cooperation for the conservation and wise use of
wetlands and their resources. It currently has 158
Contracting Parties with 1743 wetland sites totaling
161 million hectares designated for inclusion in the
Ramsar List of Wetlands of International Importance.

PURPOSE AND APPLICATION

Marine/coastal wetlands encompass mangrove swamps,
seagrass beds, estuarine waters, freshwater and brackish
lagoons, and intertidal mud, sand, or salt ﬂats and
marshes. Wetlands are such valuable natural areas and
are so diﬃcult to recreate, that it is critically important
to conserve and restore them.

Coastal wetlands are among the world’s most productive
environments and perform a host of ecological and
hydrological functions that beneﬁt humankind. They
provide the water and primary productivity upon
which countless species of plants and animals depend
for survival. They are cradles of biological diversity and
home to economically important species, such as ﬁsh
and crustaceans. They support a range of livelihoods
and provide food security for coastal communities.

In addition to providing important livelihood resources
for rural coastal communities, coastal wetland also
supply other vital ecosystem services. This include
providing protection against future climate change
and variability. Coastal wetlands act as natural buﬀers
against extreme weather events, storm surge and erosion
and they limit salt-water intrusion. Low lying wetlands
function as natural sponges by limiting the impact of
ﬂoods.

ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

FUNCTIONING AND HEALTHY COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS

INFORMATION AND DATA
REQUIREMENTS

Map remaining intact coastal wetland systems in
the region using ﬁeld surveys, together with remote
sensing imagery (where available) to distinguish salt-
tolerant species from freshwater species.

Analyze the vulnerability of the wetland to storms and
sea-level rise to establish priorities for protection and
restoration. Post-storm evaluation of wetlands and
adjacent land impacts provides valuable information
on the resilience of wetlands and their storm buﬀer
capacities.

Determine freshwater ﬂow requirements to support
the maintenance of estuarine mangroves and other
brackish water wetlands. Consider potential climate
change impacts on freshwater ﬂows.

Determine candidate sites for restoring degraded
wetlands to original functions, given the long-term
potential of sea level rise, salinity, and storm events

Coastal topography and wetland migration

a) smooth slope with migrating band
of wetlands and open water surfaces.

b) steep slope may prevent landward
migration of wetlands until the rising
waters reach the top of the slope,
and water is shallow enough for
wetland creation.

Source: OECD 2007

http://www.oecd.

org/dataoecd/36/22/38574805.pdf

a. Wetland and open water migration

b. Net loss until “nick point”

MANGROVE PLANTING PROJECTS IN NORTHERN VIETNAM

Mangroves and coastal wetlands are natural assets in defending coastlines from the dangers of wind and
storm surge. In northeast Vietnam, thousands of hectares of mangroves have been planted and protected
since 1994 for this very purpose. Previously, coastal storms would often breach dikes, wreaking havoc
in both human and economic terms. However, thanks largely to the new mangroves, in the aftermath of
typhoon Wukong, which pummeled the northeast coast of Vietnam in 2000, neither dike damage nor loss
of human life was reported. Since then, the mangroves have successfully reduced dike maintenance costs by
millions of US dollars per year. The mangroves have also contributed to better livelihoods for inhabitants as
a result of the wealth of crabs, shrimps, and mollusks provided by the mangroves.

Source: IFRC, 2002

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR
DEVELOPING THE MEASURE

Wetlands are extremely sensitive to sea level rise
and delta submergence. The rate at which wetlands
change because of sea level rise depends largely on
the topography, proﬁle, and habitats that are situated
landward of existing wetlands. In a general sense, rising
waters on a gently rising continuous surface should
result in a band of wetlands migrating landward (Figure
1), as long as: 1) there are no barriers (i.e. development),
and 2) the soil and hydrological conditions are favorable.
Whether or not new wetlands will make up for the
shoreward wetlands lost to rising water will depend on
the details of the coastal surface—i.e., the complexity
of the topography in terms of swales, depressions,
and overall drainage density. It should be noted that
the steeper the slope, the more narrow the migrating
wetland fringe—as the appropriate water depths for
wetlands growth will cover a narrower portion of the
sloped proﬁle. To a large degree, natural migration of
wetlands will also depend on the nature of land use in
newly inundated areas.

ANNEX A – ADAPTATION MEASURES

COASTAL WETLAND PROTECTION AND RESTORATION

The other common shoreline topography aﬀecting
natural migration occurs where there are discontinuities
in the slope. For example, there may be abrupt rises in
the slope as seen in proﬁle b in Figure 1. Under this
scenario, wetlands will be lost since the water becomes
too deep to support wetland vegetation. No new
wetlands can form until the water levels rise above the
steep slope, at which time, the gently sloping surface
will be shallow enough to support wetlands once again.
How long it takes for the water to reach that point
depends on the elevation of the nick point or bluﬀ and
the rate of sea level rise. Where wetlands are not able
to migrate inland due to topographic and other natural
constraints, one option is to create new wetlands in
suitable areas to compensate for those that are lost.

There are other considerations in designing coastal
wetlands conservation, migration and restoration.

Prioritize those sites for habitat restoration that allow
natural recession landward and thus provide resilience
to sea level rise. Climate change scenarios should
inform priorities for protection and rehabilitation.

Select restoration sites for re-vegetation, sediment
nourishment and conservation agreements that
provide multiple critical functions (e.g., storm buﬀer
for coastal communities and endangered species
habitat).

Redeﬁne ﬂood hazard zones to match projected
expansion of ﬂooding frequency.

In many countries, there is no one overarching policy
on wetlands protection in spite of growing recognition
of their importance. The institutional framework
surrounding wetlands is often complex with many
federal and state level agencies (with and without
regulatory power over wetlands), municipal authorities,
research and scientiﬁc institutions, nongovernmental
organizations (NGOs), and civil society groups involved
in various aspects of wetland management. Institutional
and governance considerations for developing
adaptation strategies for wetlands protection in the
context of climate change should include the following:

Establish or enforce land and water-based zoning
requirements.

Restrict sand mining, ﬁshing, mangrove cutting, and
other activities in protected wetland areas.

Adopt ordinances that protect coastal wetlands
from development while taking into consideration
ecological and equity issues.

Strengthen eﬀective management and enforcement
systems.

Develop plans for removal of structures and vessels
that are stranded in wetlands after a storm so the
habitat is not destroyed.

Identify special considerations for wetlands in
highly urbanized areas, to determine how to protect
the wetlands functions, while protecting existing
development. This may require that certain wetlands
are prioritized over others for future protection in the
face of climate change impacts.

IMPROVING THE LIKELIHOOD
OF SUCCESS IN APPLYING
THIS MEASURE AS A CLIMATE
CHANGE ADAPTATION

An obstacle for wetlands protection involves
the preference for constructing “hard” shoreline
stabilization over installing “soft” measures. Seawalls
and shoreline armoring impedes adaptation of wetlands
to migrate landward with sea level rise. Careful analysis
of the location and designs of shoreline protection is
warranted in areas with coastal wetlands. If wetlands
preservation and future sea-level rise are discounted,
coastal structures will contribute to the loss of wetlands
or the severe transformation of their functions. There
are, however, some ways to overcome these obstacles.

When undertaking wetland conservation and
restoration, use a decision-making process that is
transparent and participatory and where there are
opportunities for consultation and negotiation with
all stakeholders within the landscape.

Carry out wetland restoration in coastal areas with
reference to existing national laws, wetlands policy
and action plans.

Develop community-led approaches for protection
and restoration of wetlands, drawing on traditional
knowledge and practices and with provision of
incentives for sustainable livelihood development.

Ensure that all relevant government departments
are consulted and play a central role in restoration
together with the local communities.

ANNEX A – ADAPTATION MEASURES

functioning and healthy coastal ecosystems

2. MARINE CONSERVATION AGREEMENTS

Marine Conservation Agreements are a technique
to reach conservation goals. A formal or informal
agreement is established between two or more parties
who obligate themselves for an exchange of beneﬁts, to
take certain actions, to refrain from certain actions, or
to transfer certain rights and responsibilities in order to
achieve agreed upon ocean or coastal conservation goals.

RELEVANCE TO CLIMATE CHANGE

Marine Conservation Agreements (MCAs) are used
to restore and protect fragile coastal and marine
ecosystems that can attenuate the eﬀects of sea level rise
and storm surges. Examples of such ecosystems include
barrier islands, shellﬁsh reefs, coral reefs, seagrass beds,
mangrove forests, and coastal forests. Restoring and
protecting these natural areas can also inﬂuence local
climate and play a role in carbon sequestration. When
undertaken in collaboration with nature-oriented
businesses, MCAs can improve social and economic
conditions of coastal communities through ﬁsheries,
mariculture, and tourism activities. MCAs, commonly
implemented by non-governmental or private parties,
complement formal Marine Protected Areas (MPAs)
by serving as catalysts for the formal establishment of
MPAs. Functionally, they serve to protect areas similar
to MPAs, or provide a mechanism for local stakeholder
involvement in collaborative management of MPAs.

The MCA is a ﬂexible measure that can be applied by
a variety of organizations, in a range of situations and
locations (Table 1). Examples of successful MCAs are
found in nearly every U.S. state. They also exist at the
country level, including but not limited to Chile, Costa
Rica, Ecuador, Fiji, Indonesia, Mexico, Philippines,
Spain, and Tanzania.

PURPOSE AND APPLICATION

The MCA is an extension of the arrangement where
private, for-profit entities routinely enter into
agreements and acquire rights to areas for a wide range
of purposes such as marinas, utility lines, gravel mining,
aquaculture, and oil extraction. In many parts of the
world, marine tenure systems assign communities and
ﬁshing cooperatives with the rights to marine areas.
NGOs are now using this model, in collaboration with
local communities and governments, for an expanded
list of purposes that include protecting the marine
environment in speciﬁc areas, promoting harvesting
methods, and limiting access to fragile resources.

MCAs enable communities, municipalities or NGOs
to work with the owners (whether public or private)
of lands and resources lying within marine areas to
improve levels of protection. They are particularly
eﬀective when property rights are well-established. They
can, however, also be used where communities engage
in collective management. Environmentally important
intertidal, subtidal, subsurface, surface/air, and adjacent
terrestrial areas can be included as the focus of an MCA
(see Figure 1). MCAs promote the continuation of
existing or the development of future sustainable uses.
Example uses are for coastal agriculture, aquaculture,
seagrass beds, coral reefs, timber production, and other
valuable ecosystem services (ﬁsh and wildlife habitat,
clean water, clean air, or scenic open space). MCAs
can prohibit certain activities, guide owners and users
in conservation practices, or confer speciﬁc rights,
interests, or uses to NGOs. These details are spelled out
in the legal document that typically serves as the formal
mechanism establishing the MCA.

ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

FUNCTIONING AND HEALTHY COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS

INFORMATION AND DATA
REQUIREMENTS

The information needed before deciding to apply this
measure may be similar to that needed to assess the
feasibility and desirability of choosing the following
measures: marine protected areas, payments for
environmental services, living shorelines and other
measures related to how speciﬁc economic sectors use
natural areas.

Conservation priorities—clearly identify what is to
be protected or managed.

Threats and strategies—understand the threats
(including the effects of climate change) to
conservation priorities and how MCAs can help
mitigate the threats.

Ownership and current uses of the lands and
resources—assess these related to the priorities and
threats in order to ensure all important parties are
included in the agreement.

Applicable laws and policies—give these careful
consideration as they provide the legal framework.

Parties to the agreement and other stakeholders—
identify and consult with these prior to and during
the implementation of an MCA project.

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR
DEVELOPING THE MEASURE

Essential design elements for MCA projects include
conservation commitments, benefits accruing to
parties, compliance and enforcement mechanisms,
and duration of agreement.

While MCAs can be used to protect numerous
features of the ocean and coastal environment, most
typically they are applied to ﬁnﬁsh, shellﬁsh and their
habitats.

When possible, MCAs should involve the direct
participation and agreement of local communities as
well as provide opportunities for local employment.

MCAs can be applied at diﬀerent scales depending
on project goals, from small scales (less than ﬁve
hectares) to extremely large scales (up to 400,000 sq.
kms.)

Costs and financing—the initial and long-term
costs associated with the grantor incentives and

management of lands and resources should be
identiﬁed and sustainable arrangements for ﬁnancing
should be arranged.

Estimate the likely impacts of climate change on
the area or resources targeted for protection. Ensure
the terms, conditions, beneﬁts, areas, and resources
identiﬁed in the MCA account for these.

Changes in sea level, sea temperature, and salinity,
and storm events may bring about changes in areas
of important biodiversity that are targeted for
protection. For example, coastal ecosystems may
migrate upland, if the terrain allows. Or, they may
disappear if migration is not a possibility. While this
constraint is not unique to MCAs, it needs to be a
consideration in the planning of any MCA project.

Typically, MCAs are consummated through legally
binding documents/mechanisms signed by two or
more parties. Common examples of formal MCA
mechanisms include leases, licenses, easements,
management agreements, purchase and sale agreements,
concessions, and contracts. These formal mechanisms
are often defensible in courts. Judicial systems in
developing countries, however, can be ill-equipped for
this. Hence, many MCAs rely on the beneﬁt streams
and close binding relationships between the parties to
promote enforcement. In other cases, some MCAs rely
on informal governance arrangements—based on good-
will and verbal promises—in lieu of formal documents.
In some cultures, formal documents and judicial
procedures are foreign instruments, making informal
arrangements the only practical option. Whether
making formal or informal agreements with NGOs
or communities, it is important to determine who is
authorized to engage in such agreements on behalf of
the community.

IMPROVING THE LIKELIHOOD
OF SUCCESS IN APPLYING
THIS MEASURE AS A CLIMATE
CHANGE ADAPTATION

The primary reason MCAs are attractive compared to
other climate change adaptation measures is that they
are based on agreed upon terms and conditions that
clearly deﬁne the roles and responsibilities of each party
and their beneﬁts.

MCAs provide tangible beneﬁts to both the grantors
and the grantees. The flow of benefits should be

ANNEX A – ADAPTATION MEASURES

MARINE CONSERVATION AGREEMENTS

monitored periodically and consistently throughout
the duration of the agreement based on agreed-
upon performance standards. Providing a “stream” of
beneﬁts over time helps ensure all parties will continue
to abide by the terms of the agreement. Grantors
(the owners and users of the land or resources) may
receive incentives in the form of direct cash payments,
tax deductions, community social services and
infrastructure, employment opportunities, cultural
preservation, and pride in local accomplishments. In

return, grantees (NGOs or nature-oriented businesses)
often receive a public or social beneﬁt in the form of
“protection” for lands or resources through ownership,
access restrictions, harvest restrictions, or management
guarantees. Continuous communication is helpful in
reminding parties about the purpose of the agreement
and providing evidence of its success or failure.

An implementation issue speciﬁc to MCAs related to
how boundaries associated with the rights, interests, or
activities identiﬁed within the MCAs change as habitats
and resources change or migrate. Will the area of the
MCA migrate as habitats and resources migrate? Or,
will the MCA remain stationary as the original areas
targeted for protection migrate? This issue can and
should be identiﬁed and resolved within the language
of the MCA document.

Given their innovative nature, MCA projects beneﬁt
from personal leadership and advocacy. Successful
project leaders take into account the cultural, social,
political, and economic characteristics and decision-
making styles of the local communities. This is especially
important when using informal agreements.

Surface/Air

Subsurface

Intertidal
Subtidal

Terrestrial

Ocean and Coastal Areas Applicable to MCAs

Elements and Variables of Marine Conservation Agreements

Mechanisms

Parties

Benefits

Examples

Formal

Informal

Grantor

Grantee

Incentive

Protection

Purchase &

Verbal

Private

NGOs

Direct

Ownership

Chile

sale

individuals

payments

Handshake

Communities

Access

Costa Rica

Lease

Private

Social services

Ecotourism

Harvest

Ecuador

companies

Easement

Companies

Infrastructure

Management

Mexico

Communities

License

Aquaculturists

Jobs

Tanzania

Local Govt.

Permit

Other

Culture

Tropical Isl.

State Govt.

for-profits

Concession

Pride

U.S.

Fed’l Govt.

Contract

U.K.

Behavior changes

Laws/regulations

Duration defined or undefined

Lead implementer

Private MPAs

Community MPAs

State/Fed’l MPAs

Source:

http://www.leaseown.org/pdf/PMCA_Workshop/1_MCAWorkshop_FullProceedings.pdf

FUNCTIONING AND HEALTHY COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS

ADAPTING TO COASTAL CLIMATE CHANGE

In 2006, the Government of Kiribati declared the Phoenix Islands archipelago and waters surrounding them
as the third largest marine protected area in the world, officially named the Phoenix Islands Protected Area
(PIPA). The Phoenix Islands Protected Area is a unique partnership between the Government of Kiribati
that owns the Phoenix Islands, non-governmental conservation organizations (the New England Aquarium
and Conservation International) and regional governments. The PIPA will be supported by a unique
"reverse fishing license" financing program in which the Government of Kiribati will be reimbursed for the
amount that they would have made from selling fishing licenses if PIPA were not protected. The trust will
be administered by the Government of Kiribati and an advisory board, working collaboratively to ensure
the long-term sustainability of this remarkable place. One of the many important natural features that PIPA
will protect is coral reefs.

Coral reefs worldwide are now threatened by impacts associated with global climate change. Specifically,
coral reef "bleaching" is caused by many factors that might stress the coral, such as rising water,
temperatures, pollution, solar radiation, changing salinity, and bacterial infections. The death of corals and the
resulting disappearance of reefs would result in the loss of an uncountable number of marine invertebrates
and fishes that rely on the physical structure of the reef for survival. Coral reefs sustain large numbers of
people that rely on fishing for daily food and income. They also protect coastlines by absorbing constant
wave energy from the ocean, thereby protecting people living near the coast from increased storm
damage, erosion and flooding. While free from the local stresses that degraded reefs might cause coral
bleaching, the Phoenix Islands have not been spared the threat of global warming. In late 2002 one of the
hottest ever-recorded warming events that has affected any reef around the world hit the Phoenix Islands.
Because of their remote and pristine nature, high levels of damage were restricted to small areas within
the Phoenix Islands, with many reef areas showing greater resistance and resilience to bleaching than have
been documented elsewhere in the world. Their remoteness and the guaranteed protection by the Phoenix
Islands Protected Area will help the Phoenix Islands to remain as one of the least-impacted reef systems to
climate change and serve as a model target for protecting and rehabilitating other reefs heavily degraded by
humans.

For more information, see:

http://phoenixislands.org/works.html

http://www.leaseown.org/DEVEL/Field_Projects/Agreement_Phoenix_Islands.html

SOURCES FOR MORE INFORMATION

Aaronson, D. and M. Manuel, 2008, Conser vation Easements and Climate Change. Sustainable Development Law and Policy, Winter, 2008.

http://www.goldbergkohn.com/assets/attachments/110.pdf

The Nature Conservancy. Conser vation Easements: All About Conser vation Easements.

http://www.nature.org/aboutus/howwework/conservationmethods/privatelands/conservationeasements/about/allabout.html

WEBSITES

The Nature Conservancy. 2008. Marine Conservation Agreements: A Practitioner’s Toolkit.

http://www.leaseown.org